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Mechatronics 2 CH 2
Mechatronics 2 CH 2
Chapter(2) Sensors
Course Syllabus
o Microcontroller programming and interfacing including:
Microcontroller architectures using a specific example with details of its assembly language
programming and interfacing some common peripheral.
o Sensors including:
position and speed measurement, Stress and strain measurement, Temperature measurement,
Vibration and acceleration measurement, Pressure and flow measurement and semiconductor
sensors and MEMS (micro-electromechanical systems).
o Actuators including:
Solenoids and relays, Electric motors, Stepper motors, Hydraulic and pneumatic actuators.
o Mechatronic systems including:
Control architectures and a number of case studies, using code sign concepts and VHDL
Chapter Outlines
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors What is a Sensor
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors What is a Sensor
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors What is a Sensor
Transducer is a device that transfers power from one system to another in the
same or in the different form'. Thermistor with it associate circuit convert heat to
electricity.
Each sensor is based on a transduction principle: conversion of energy from one
Physical
Phenomena
Electrical
Signal
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Types, Applications, Structures Classifications
Mechanical
Magnetic Electric output
Optical Signal
Sensor
Electric Conditioning
Radiation
Chemical
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors
Type of Sensors
Accelerometer Gyro Tilt Sensors Piezo Bend Sensor Metal Detector Gas Sensor Radiation Sensor
Digital Infrared Ranging Resistive Bend Sensors UV Detector Pyroelectric Detector Pressure Switch
Resistive Light Sensor
IR Sensor w/lens Limit Switch Mechanical Tilt Sensors Touch Switch Miniature Polaroid Sensor
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors
Type of Sensors
IR Pin Diode Thyristor Magnetic Sensor Hall Sensors Polaroid Sensor Board
IR Reflection Sensor IR Amplifier Sensor IRDA Transceiver Magnetic Reed Switch Solar Cell
IR Remote Receiver Radio Shack Remote Receiver IR Modulator Receiver Piezo Ultrasonic Transducers
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Types, Applications, Structures Classifications
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Types, Applications, Structures Classifications
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Types, Applications, Structures Classifications
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Sensor Performance Terminology
Explain the significance of the following information given in the specification of sensor
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Sensor Performance Terminology
Static Characteristics
1. Range Minimum to maximum value that can be measured is the range. The range defines the
allowable range of the physical quantity that can be detected by the sensor.
2. Sensitivity The relationship between the measured input and the output of the sensor is its
sensitivity. For example, a resistance thermometer may have a sensitivity of 0.5 Ω/˚C
Sensor transfer function describe the relation between the input and output
Physical
Phenomena
Input Out Put
Electrical
Signal
3. Resolution The smallest change in input value that can detected by the sensor.
4. Accuracy The difference between true and actual measured value is the accuracy. For example,
if a temperature sensor has a range of 0 to 200°C and an accuracy of ± 0.5% full-scale value,
then the temperature read by the sensor is off from the true actual temperature by ±1°.
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Sensor Performance Terminology
Static Characteristics
7. Repeatability Error in output value for repeated application of the same input value is called
repeatability or precision. The smaller the repeatability error, the higher the measurement
precision would be. Repeatability is affected by signal interference, vibration, and temperature
fluctuation. Repeatability error cannot be reduced by calibration.
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Sensor Performance Terminology
Dynamic characteristics
1. Rise Time.
2. Time Constant.
3. Settling Time.
4. Bandwidth.
5. Output resistance.
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Classification of sensors
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Classification of sensors
There are two main types of sensors based on the output they produce: Digital
sensors and Analog sensors.
Digital Analog
Object Object
sensor sensor
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Classification of sensors
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Other Sensor classification Criteria
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Sensors Types
• Types
• How it works:
• Make up:
• Range:
• Accuracy:
• Resolution
Temperature is a basic quantity in process control systems, and there are several
types of sensors available to measure temperature. These include thermistors,
thermocouples, RTD, and IC sensors.
Expansion Thermometers.
Bimetallic Thermometers
Liquid in Glass Thermometers
Gas Thermometers.
Resistance Temperature Detectors.
Metal wire
Thin film
Silicon based
Thermistor.
NTC :Negative Temperature Coefficient.
PTC :Positive Temperature Coefficient.
Thermocouples.
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Temperature Sensors
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Temperature Sensors
1. Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
Typical Specification of Pt RTD
1. Range :
2. Resolution :
3. Accuracy :
The most common metal used in RTDs is platinum because of its high melting
point, resistance to oxidation, predictable temperature characteristics, and stable
calibration values
Resistance to Voltage
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Temperature Sensors
2. Thermistor
It is a temperature semiconductor resistor.
Typically have negative temperature coefficient NTC, PTC thermistors also available.
Large resistance change with temperature.
Small range, high nonlinearity, and small size.
Resistance–Temperature Relationship:
= Resistance at T K, = Resistance at T0 K , =Material constant ranging from 3000-5000K.
Sensitivity .
Made of oxides of manganese , nickel or cobalt and sulphides of iron, copper or aluminum.
Typical Specification of Thermistor
1. Range :
2. Resolution :
3. Accuracy :
NTC PTC
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Temperature Sensors
3. Thermodiodes
The thermo-diode converts temperature to a small DC voltage. The output voltage
varies linearly with the temperature. It consists of semiconductor diode.
Temperature-voltage relationship.
Where T is temperature on the Kelvin scale, the charge on an electron, and K and I 0 are
constants.
By taking logarithms we can write the equation in terms of the voltage as:
Diodes for used as temperature sensors LM3911, give a very small compact sensor, the output
voltage from LM3911 is proportion to the temperature at the rate of
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Temperature Sensors
4. Thermotransistor.
Transistors for used as temperature sensors, give a small compact sensor, the
voltage across the junction between the base and the emitter depends on the
temperature. this sensor can be used in the range (-40 : 110) ° C and gives an output
of 10 mV/ ° C
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Temperature Sensors
5. Thermocouples
The thermocouple converts temperature to a small DC voltage.
It consists of two dissimilar metal.
The output voltage varies linearly with the temperature difference between the
junctions.
Temperature-voltage relationship.
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Temperature Sensors
5. Thermocouples
EMFs in Thermocouple Circuits
𝟐 𝟑
𝑽
=𝒂𝟏 𝒕 +𝒂 𝟐 𝒕 + 𝒂𝟑 𝒕 +…
T K J Type
Copper Chromel iron Positive
constantan Alumel constantan Negative
Range
Sensitivity
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Temperature Sensors
𝟏 𝟏
𝑹=𝑹𝟎𝒆
𝜷
( 𝑻
−
𝑻 𝟎
) 𝑹
𝒕 = 𝑹 𝟎 (𝟏+𝜶 𝒕 )
𝟐 𝟑
𝑽
=𝒂𝟏 𝒕 +𝒂 𝟐 𝒕 + 𝒂𝟑 𝒕 +…
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Humidity Sensors
Hygrometer : a piece of equipment used to measure humidity ( how much water is in air). Relative humidity is
the moisture content of the air compared to air completely saturated with moisture and is expressed as a
percentage.
1. Resistive Hygrometer Sensors
There are resistive hygrometer elements whose resistance varies with the vapor pressure of water in the
surrounding atmosphere. They usually contain a hygroscopic (water-absorbing) salt film, such as Lithium
Chloride, which ionizes in water and is conductive with a measurable resistance. These devices are usable
over a limited humidity range and have to be periodically calibrated, as their resistance may vary with time,
because of temperature and humidity cycling, as well as exposure to contaminating agents.
Humidity
2.
Capacitive Hygrometer Sensors
Capacitive hygrometer elements that contain a hygroscopic film whose dielectric constant varies with
humidity, producing a change in the device's capacitance. Some of these can be more stable than the
resistive elements. The capacitance is usually measured using an AC bridge circuit.
where εr is the relative permittivity of the dielectric, εo a constant called permittivity of free space, d is the
plates separation, and A the area of overlap between the two plates
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Proximity Sensors
Proximity sensors are used to detect the presence of an object (or obstacle). They are in much
demand in robotic and automated machinery applications. Proximity sensors are used to sense
the obstacle detection, line tracing and direction monitoring.
Proximity Sensors
Ultrasonic Sensors
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Proximity Sensors
Ultrasonic Sensors
Basic principle of operation:
•
Emit a quick burst of ultrasound (50kHz), (human hearing: 20Hz to 20kHz)
Measure the elapsed time until the receiver indicates that an echo is detected.
Determine how far away the nearest object is from the sensor
D = round-trip distance, v = speed of propagation(), and t = elapsed time
Applications:
Distance Measurement
Mapping: Rotating proximity scans (maps the proximity of objects surrounding the robot)
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Fire Detection and Alarm System Basics
Addressable Systems
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Smoke Detector
Photoelectric
Light Scattering Smoke Detection. The principle of using a light source and a photosensitive
sensor arranged so that the rays from the light source do not normally fall onto the
photosensitive sensor. When smoke particles inter the light path, some of the light is scattered by
reflection and refraction onto the sensor. The light signal is processed and used to convey an
alarm condition when it meets preset criteria.
A :Light Source & B : Photo Sensor
SLR-24V detector
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Smoke Detector
Ionization
Ionization Smoke Detection. The principle of using a small amount of radioactive material to
ionize the air between two differentially charged electrodes to sense the presence of smoke
particles. Smoke Particles entering the ionization volume decrease the conductance of the air by
reducing ion mobility. The reduced conductance signal is processed and used to convey an
alarm condition when it meets preset criteria.
Radioactive material knock electrons off oxygen and nitrogen molecules to form a current,
when numerous small particles enter the chamber the current is disrupted sounding the alarm.
SIJ-24 detector
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Heat/Thermal ( Fixed Temp & Rate of Rise)
Fixed-temperature heat detectors are designed to alarm when the temperature of the operating elements
reaches a specific point. Fixed-temperature heat detectors are available to cover a wide range of operating
temperatures from about 57oC and higher.
Fixed-Temperature Detector. A device that responds when its operating element becomes heated to a
predetermined level.
The rate-of-rise detector, however, will function when the rate of temperature increase exceeds a
predetermined value, typically around 7 o to 8oC) per minute. Rate-of-rise detectors are designed to
compensate for the normal changes in ambient temperature that are expected under non-fire conditions.
Rate-of-Rise Detector. A device that responds when the temperature rises at a rate exceeding a
predetermined value
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Heat/Thermal Flame Detector
A flame detector responds either to radiant energy visible to the human eye (400 to 770 nm)
or outside the range of human vision.
Flame Detector. A radiant energy-sensing detector that detects the radiant energy emitted by a
flame.
Radiant Energy-Sensing Fire Detector. A device that detects radiant energy, such as ultraviolet,
visible, or infrared, that is emitted as a product of combustion reaction and obeys the laws of
optics.
Each type of fuel, when burning, produces a flame with specific radiation characteristics. A
flame detection system must be chosen for the type of fire that is probable. For example an
ultraviolet (UV) detector will respond to a hydrogen fire,
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Distance (Position or Displacement) Sensors
Displacement Sensors
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Displacement Measurement
1. Potentiometers
The potentiometer (variable resistor) is often mechanically coupled for displacement measurements. It can
be driven by either AC or DC signals and does not usually require an amplifier. It is inexpensive but cannot
usually be based in high-speed applications. It has limited accuracy, repeatability, and lifetime, due to
mechanical wear of the active resistive material. Often, the resistive element is polymer-based to increase its
usable life
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Displacement Measurement
2. Capacitive Transducers
Simple capacitive and inductive sensors produce a change in reactance (capacitance
or inductance) with varying distance between the sensor and the measured object.
They require AC signals and conditioning circuitry and have limited dynamic
range and linearity.
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Displacement Measurement
3. LVDT Sensors
The LVDT (linear voltage differential transformer) is a versatile device used to measure
displacement. It is an inductor consisting of three coils wound around a movable core,
connected to a shaft.
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Displacement Measurement
4. Ultrasonic Sensors
Basic principle of operation:
•
Emit a quick burst of ultrasound (50kHz), (human hearing: 20Hz to 20kHz)
Measure the elapsed time until the receiver indicates that an echo is detected.
Determine how far away the nearest object is from the sensor
D = round-trip distance, v = speed of propagation(), and t = elapsed time
Applications:
Distance Measurement
Mapping: Rotating proximity scans (maps the proximity of objects surrounding the robot)
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Displacement Measurement
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Displacement Measurement
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Velocity and Motion Sensors
Velocity and motion Sensors
Pyroelectric
Optical Encoder Tachogenerator Doppler Effect
Sensors
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Velocity and Motion Sensors
1. Optical Encoder
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Velocity and Motion Sensors
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Velocity and Motion Sensors
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Velocity and Motion Sensors
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Velocity and Motion Sensors
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Velocity and Motion Sensors
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Velocity and Motion Sensors
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Velocity and Motion Sensors
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Velocity and Motion Sensors
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Velocity and Motion Sensors
1. Optical encoder
Binary to Gray Conversion
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Velocity and Motion Sensors
1. Optical encoder
Binary to Gray Conversion
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Velocity and Motion Sensors
1. Optical encoder
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Velocity and Motion Sensors
1. Optical encoder
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Velocity and Motion Sensors
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Velocity and Motion Sensors
3. Doppler effect
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Velocity and Motion Sensors
4. Pyroelectric sensors
The Pyroelectric sensor converts temperature to a small charge. The output charge varies
linearly with the temperature. It consists of Pyroelectric material ,e.g. lithium tantalate, which
generate charge in response to heat flow. Curie temperature 610o
Charge
Curie temperature
Infrared radiation
Temperature
I R R O/P
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Pressure , Force Sensors
1. Piezoelectric sensor
Piezoelectric materials when stretched or compressed generate electric charge. As a result a
voltage is produced.
Piezoelectric materials are ionic crystals which when stretched or compressed.
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Pressure , Force Sensors
1. Piezoelectric sensor
The net charge on a surface is proportional to by which the charges have been displaced, and
.
The output voltage can be written as
Where is voltage sensitivity factor. The voltage sensitivity for quartz is about . For Barium Titanate it about
Drive the relationship between the pressure and the output voltage of a piezoelectric sensor
Write shorts notes on the following: Hall Effect, and Piezoelectric Effect.
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Pressure , Force Sensors
2. Tactile sensor
outpu
PVD t
Soft F
input film PVD
F
Force sensor
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Acceleration Sensors
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Acceleration Sensors
1. Seismic Accelerometer
Basic Accelerometer
• Newton’s law
Hooke’s law
𝒂 =¿
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Acceleration Sensors
2. Piezoelectric Accelerometer
In 1880, Pierre and Jacques Curie discovered the piezoelectric effect. Certain materials were observed to
generate a voltage when subjected to a mechanical strain, or undergo a change in physical dimensions under
an applied voltage. In response to a mechanical strain the piezo element generates a charge, which is
temporarily stored in the inherent capacitance of the piezo element
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Acceleration Sensors
2. Piezoelectric Accelerometer
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Acceleration Sensors
3. IC Accelerometer
4. Capacitive Accelerometer
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Fluid Pressure
Diaphragms
pressure
pressure
Flat diaphragm
Corrugated diaphragm
Diaphragm
Active Element
pressure
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Fluid Pressure
Capsules
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Fluid Pressure
Tubes Bellows
Iron rod
Primary coil
Movement
Secondary coil
pressure
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Liquid Flow
Liquid Flow
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Liquid Flow
For a horizontal tube, where ν1 is the fluid velocity, P1 the pressure and A1 the cross section area
of the tube prior to the constriction, ν2 is the fluid velocity, P2 the pressure and A2 the cross
section area at the constriction, ρ the fluid density, then Bernoulli’s equation gives
𝟐
𝒗 𝟏 𝑷 𝟏 𝒗𝟐𝟐 𝑷𝟐
+ =
𝟐𝒈 𝝆𝒈 𝟐 𝒈 𝝆 𝒈
+ 𝑨𝟏 𝒗 𝟏 𝝆= 𝑨 𝟐 𝒗 𝟐 𝝆
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Liquid Flow
Orifice plate
𝟐
𝒗 𝟏 𝑷 𝟏 𝒗𝟐𝟐 𝑷𝟐
+ = +
𝟐𝒈 𝝆𝒈 𝟐 𝒈 𝝆 𝒈
𝑨𝟐
𝑸=
√ 𝟏− ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Liquid Flow
Turbine meter
Principle of operation
Reluctance of flux path varies periodically with the angular (θ) of
the wheel.
MMF is constant.
Flux can be approximated as: . Where: α is the mean flux. β is the
amplitude of the time varying flux. n is the number of teeth of the
wheel
MMF can be written as
.
Where ω is the rotational velocity of the wheel.
ω is proportional to amplitude and frequency of E.
Assuming the drag force due to bearing and viscous friction
negligible, the rotor angular velocity (ω) is proportional to flow
rate (Q)
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Liquid Level Sensors
Level sensors measure the level of solid and liquid. Example: Mechanical, Electrical,
Ultrasonic
Liquid Level
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Liquid Level Sensors
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Liquid Level Sensors
2. Floats
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Liquid Level Sensors
3. Capacitive sensors
𝑪=𝝐
𝟎 𝝐 𝒓 𝑨/ 𝒅
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Liquid Level Sensors
V =𝐾 𝐻 𝐵 𝐼 / 𝑑
Current
Hall effect sensors can be used to as position, displacement and proximity sensors if the object being
sensed is fitted with a small permanent magnetic
Ground
Supply Output
Magnetic
Spring
Float
Spring
Hall effect sensors can be used to determine the level of fuel in an automobile fuel tank
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Electric Strain And Stress Measurement
Strain is a basic quantity in solid mechanics. When a force (torque) acts on a member, it leads
to a deformation of the member. The deformation is expressed in terms of strain.
Strain =
Stress = Strain x modulus of elasticity of the material
Electrical Strain
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Electric Strain And Stress Measurement
R L/A
Strain gages can be calibrated to measure Force or pressure, and operate by detecting the
variation in electrical resistance, piezoresistance, capacitance, inductance, piezoelectricity or
photoelectricity
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors
Electric strain and stress measurement
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors Electric strain and stress measurement
𝒅𝑹
/ 𝑹= 𝑲 𝑺 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
𝑪=𝝐
𝟎 𝝐 𝒓 𝑨/ 𝒅
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors
Electric strain and stress measurement