In the name of Allah Kareem,

Most Beneficent, Most Gracious,

the Most Merciful !
 Scientific Investigation
5. The Hypothetic-Deductive Method

1. Observation

2. Preliminary
Information
Gathering

3. Theory
Formulation

4. Hypothesizing

5. Further
Scientific Data
collection
6. Data Analysis

7. Deduction
 Scientific Investigation

1.Observation
Manager observes that changes are occurring in the
work environment showing variation in behaviors,
attitudes, feelings, communication pattern and styles,
work performance and many other variables.
2.Preliminary Information Gathering
3.This involves collecting of information in depth
regarding the observed critical change.
 Scientific Investigation

3.Theory Formulation
It integrates all the information in a logical manner, so
that the factors responsible for the problem can be
conceptualized and tested. The Theoretical Framework is
designed to assess the influence of the critical variables
on the problem.
 Scientific Investigation
4. Hypothesizing
A hypothesis is a statement that proposes a possible
relationship or conclusion that can be tested. The research
process is undertaken to test this hypothesis. Inductive
Research is used for hypotheses generation. Deductive
Research is used for hypotheses testing.

5. Further Scientific Data Collection

For each variable in the hypothesis, data needs to be

collected scientifically, so that it is valid and reliable. Data
on every variable in the Theoretical Framework also needs
to be collected.
 Scientific Investigation
6.Data Analysis
The collected data are statistically analyzed to see if the
data support the hypotheses. Qualitative data
(narrative information through interviews, group
discussions, observation etc.) and quantitative data
(numerical information through structured interviews,
questionnaires, human and technology-based
observations, etc.).
 Scientific Investigation

7.Deduction
Deduction is the process of arriving at conclusions
by interpreting the meaning of the results of the data
analysis, leading recommendations to solve the
problem.
 Scientific Investigation
6.Other Types of Research
1.Case Studies
Case studies involve in-depth, contextual
analyses of similar situations in other
organizations, where the nature and definition of
the problem happen to be the same as experienced
in the current situation.
 Scientific Investigation
6.Other Types of Research
Action Research

Action Research is used by trained and experienced

consultants to bring about a planned change. In Action
Research, the researcher begins with a problem that is
already identified, and gathers relevant data to provide a
tentative problem solution. This solution is then
implemented, with the knowledge that there may be
unintended consequences as a result of this implementation.
The effects are then evaluated, defined, and diagnosed.
 Deduction and Induction
Deduction and Induction are the two methods of drawing
conclusions.
a. Deduction: Deduction is a process of arriving at a conclusion
by applying known facts or principles to a specific situation.
(Idea- Observation-Conclusion)

b. Induction: Induction is a process in which certain

observations are used to logically establish a general
proposition from which we draw a conclusion. (Observation-
Analysis-Theory)
 12

DEDUCTION AND INDUCTION

1. Theory

2. Hypothesis 1. General Research Questions

Induction
Deductio

3. Data Collection 2. Data Collection

4. Findings 3. Findings
n

5. Hypothesis confirmed or 4. Generation of Theory

rejected

6. Revision of theory
 Deduction and Induction
Deductive reasoning: application of a

general theory to a specific case.
 Hypothesis testing
 Inductive reasoning: a process where
we observe specific phenomena and on this basis arrive at
general conclusions.
 Counting white swans
 Both inductive and deductive processes are often used in
research.
2
4
 Example 2.1
A sales manager might observe that customers are perhapsnot
pleased
 as they used to be. The manager may not be certain that
this is really the case but may experience anxiety and
some uneasinessthat customersatisfaction is on the decline.
This process of observation or sensing of the phenomena
around us is what gets most of the research- whether applied or
basic-
 started.

25
 .(Example 2.1 (cont
The next step is to determine whether there is a real problem, and if so,
howseriousitis.
Thisproblem

identificationcallsforsomepreliminarydatagathering.

The manager might talk to a few customers to find out how

theyfeel about theproductsandcustomerservice.The managermightfind
thatthecustomerslike theproductsbutareupsetbecausemanyof thetimes
the product is out of stock, and they perceive the salesperson as not being
helpful.

2
6
 16

.(Example 2.1 (cont

 From discussions with some of the salespersons , the
manager might discover that the factory does not supply the goods
on time. Salespersons might also indicate that they try to please the
customersby communicatingthedeliverydatesgiven tothembythe
factory.
 17

.(Example 2.1 (cont

 Integration of the information obtained through the informal and
formal
interviewing processhashelpedthe
managertodeterminethattheproblem doesexist.
 It also helps the manager to formulate a conceptual model or
theoretical frameworkofallthefactorscontributing totheproblem.
 18

.(Example 2.1 (cont

Thus, the following factors contribute to the
problem: 
Delaysbythefactoryindeliveringgoods
Thenotification
 oflaterdeliverydatesthatare notkept
The promises
 of the salespersons to the customers that cannot be
fulfilled
Allofthese
 factorscontributetocustomer dissatisfaction.
 19

Thehypothetico-Deductive Method
The seven steps involved in the

hypothetico-deductivemethodof researchstem from thebuildingblocks
discussed aboveandlistedbelow:
1. Identifyabroadproblem area
2. Define the problem statement
3. Develop hypotheses
4. Determine measures
5. Data collection
6. Data analysis
7. Interpretation of data
 20

Identifyabroadproblemarea

  If the manager notice adrop in sales, incorrect accounting results,low-yielding investment,

disinterestedness of employees in their work, and the like, could attract theattention of the
manager to doa research project.
 21

Define the problem statement

•
Scientific research starts with a definite aim or
purpose.
•

A problem statement statesthe general objective of the

research.
 22

Develop hypotheses
 The network of associations between the problem
and the variables that affect it is identified.
 A scientific hypothesis must meet two
requirements:

1. The hypothesis must be testable

2. The hypothesis must be falsifiable (we can only

prove our hypotheses until they are disproved).
 23

Determine measures
 The variables in the theoretical framework should
 measurable in some way.
be
 Some variables can not be measure

quantitatively , such as unresponsive
 employees , we need to operationalize this
variable.

 Measurement of variables is discussed in Chs. 6
and 7.
 24

Data collection

 Data with respect to each variable in the

hypothesis need to be obtained.
 There are two types of data:

1. Quantitatative data

2. Qualitative data
 25

Data Analysis
 In this step, the data gathered are statistically
analyzed to see if the hypotheses that were
generated have been supported.

 Analyses of both quantitative and qualitative data

can be done to determine if certain relations are
important.
 26

Data Analysis
 Qualitative data refer to information gathered through
interviews and observations. These data usually for
objects than can not be physically measured, like
feelings and attitudes.

 Quantitative data refer to information gathered about

objects that can be physically measured. The researcher
could obtain these data through the company records,
government statistics, or any formal records.
 27

Interpretation of data
 Now we must decide whether our hypotheses are
supported or not by interpreting the meaning of
the results or the data analysis.
 Based on these results, the researcher would
make recommendations in order to solve the
problem in hand.
 28

Case Studies
 Case studies involve in-depth analyses of similar
situations in other organizations, where the
nature and definition of the problem is the same
as experienced in the current situation.
 If a particular hypothesis has not been supported
even in a single other case study, the researcher
could ignore that hypothesis.
 29

Case Studies
 Case studies are not often undertaken in

organizations because:
 It is very seldom to find similar problems happened
in an organizations of the same size and same type
of setting.
 Many companies prefer to guard their problems and
their data.
 30

Action Research
 Action research is sometimes undertaken by
consultants who want to initiate change
processes in organizations.
 Action research methodology is most
appropriate while effecting planned changes.
 31

Action Research
 The researcher begins with a problem that is already
identified,
 and gathers relevant data to provide a
tentative problem solution.
 This solution is then implemented, with the knowledge
that there may be unintended consequences following
such implementation.
 The effects are then evaluated, defined, and diagnosed,
and the research continues on an ongoing basis until
the problem is fully
 resolved.
CH. 4
THE RESEARCH
PROCESS
 Steps 1 to 3

 The broad problem area

 Preliminary data gathering
 Problem definition
The Research Process
 Broad Problem Area
 Broad problem area refers to the entire situation
where one sees a possible need for research and
problem solving.
 Such issues might pertain to:
Problems currently existing in an organizational setting that
need to be solved
Areas that a manager believes need to be improved in the
organization
A conceptual or theoretical issues that needs to be tightened
up for the basic researcher to understand certain phenomena
Some research questions that a basic researcher wants to
answer empirically
Preliminary Data Collection
 Interviews
 Literature- research: the documentation of a
comprehensive review of the published and
unpublished work from secondary sources of
data in the areas of specific interest to the
researcher.
 Literature Survey
 The purpose of the literature review :
To ensure that no important variable that has been in
the past been found repeatedly to have had an
impact on the problem is ignored
To prevent researcher to “discover” something that
has already been thoroughly researched
Could be the basis of qualitative research
Provide the foundation for developing a
comprehensive theoretical framework from which
hypotheses can be developed for testing
 Literature Survey (Cont’d)

 Extracting the relevant information:

Detailed information on the problem that was
researched
The design details of the study (such as sample
size and data collection methods)
Ultimate findings
 Problem Definition
 Problem: many situations where a gap exists
between the actual and the desired ideal
states.
 Problem definition or problem statement: a
clear, precise, and succinct statement of the
question or issue that is to be investigated
with the goal of finding an answer or solution