ROCK

MECHANICS
 ROCK MECHANICS
• The study of rock behavior in the solid state under varying
environmental and internal conditions
• Main focus is how rocks respond to applied stresses, especially
those that naturally occur due to:
• Gravity
• Mantle Convection
• Plate Tectonics
• Diapiric Movements: magma, salt diapirs
 STRESS
• Same as Pressure

• = Force/Area

• Units in Earth Sciences are MPa = 106 Pa = 10 bars =10 atm = 147
psi
 STRAIN
• Response to or result of applied stress
• Linear strain is defined as (L1 – L0)/L0
• Units are ???? (unitless)
• Volumetric strain = (V1-V0)/V0
• Areal Strain = (A1-A0)/A0
• Strain is usually expressed as a percent change
 ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS
AFFECTING ROCK BEHAVIOR
Stress Factors:
• Applied Stress
• Stress History
• Duration
• How stress applied over time
• Temperature
• Pore Fluids and Pressure
 LITHOSPHERIC
PRESSURE
• Aka Confining Pressure
• The vertical component can be calculated as Pc = rgz,
• Where r = average density in g/cc,
• g= grav. constant,
• z = depth
• In the Lithosphere Pc increases at about 25-30 MPa/km
• In general Pc increases at r*10 MPa/km
PRESSURE VS. DEPTH IN
EARTH
 GEOTHERMAL GRADIENT
• T increases in the Lithosphere at 25 C/km
0

• T continues to increase all the way to the core, but at a lower rate

• The melting T of Quartz is 573-870 0C

• The melting T of Feldspar >1100
• The melting T of calcite is 910
TEMPERATURE VS. DEPTH IN THE
EARTH
HORIZONTAL STRESSES IN THE EARTH
DO NOT EQUAL VERTICAL LOAD,
RGZ, BUT ARE ABOUT 0.25-0.5 OF SV
DEPENDING ON COMPOSITION, POROSITY, PORE
FLUIDS
 INTERNAL CONDITIONS
AFFECTING ROCK BEHAVIOR
• Composition (silicates and oxides most resistant to strain)
• Texture/Fabric (phaneritic most resistant)
• Pores, cracks, flaws
• Previous stresses stored in grains
• Degree of Weathering (minerals that weather from oxides and silicates to
other compounds are weakened)
• Presence of fluids in pores or cracks
 ROCK TEXTURE/FABRIC
• Grain size
• Interlocking or grains in cement?
• Sorting
• Foliation/ non-foliated
• Sedimentary layering
 TEXTURES

Note: Most Strain is not due to breaking bonds,

but is due to slip of grains against each other,
or between grains and cement
POROSITY VS. DEPTH
 RIGID AND BRITTLE
BEHAVIORS
• Rigid:
• No strain, no response
• Most rocks show rigid behavior at room T and no
Pc, and at stresses below Pa

• Brittle:
• No strain before failure
• In ideal brittle behavior, if stress is removed
before rock fails, there will be no internal signs of
strain
 RQD

• Rock Quality Designation index, or RQD, was introduced by Don Deere

in 1963. It judges rock quality based solely on measurements of
recovered rock core (above left) in 10 foot increments, based on percent
recovery and percentage of the pieces longer than 4 inches.
 RQD
• RQD = Σ pieces > 4” long (100)
total length cored

• 100-90 Excellent
• 90-75 Good
• 75-50 Fair
• 50-25 Poor
• <25 Very poor
the reported RQD value varies along the
scan line of the recovered core
• The Rock Mass Rating (RMR) System, or Geomechanics
Classification, was introduced by Dick Bieniawski in 1972-73.
It has been continually refined, base don case studies of actual
excavations.
• “Rock” is a subjective term. Karl Terzaghi
arbitrarily defined hard rock as any natural
material having qu > 4000 psi, which is same as
structural concrete.
• Even the hardest rocks are perturbed by
discontinuitities; such as these sheet joints,
which are essentially tensile fractures, which
form a never ending series of blocks.
 ROCK
STRENGTH
and
FRACTURE ANIOSOTROPY
• Variances in Rock Stiffness plays a significant role in controlling
fracture spacing between tensile discontinuities.
• Stronger rocks can be more brittle, and thereby, exhibit closer
fracture spacings
• Most rocks are brittle, and break under induced tension
when compressed, as shown here.
• Even modest lateral confinement can exert significant
increase in observed strength.
• This is why tensile reinforcement provided by rock bolts can
be so effective
Typical sequence of crack propagation
observed during an unconfined compression
test on intact rock, with joints or partings.
Extension fractures form parallel to the
maximum principal stress, which is vertical.
As extension cracks propagate, the cross sectional area of the
cylinder diminishes rapidly, increasing the fiber stress being
carried by the central portion of the cylinder (shown at left).
The vertical extension fractures eventually coalesce, allowing
for a kind of pseudo macro shear displacement to occur, shown
at center. The right image shows largest remnant of the
cylinder, after testing.
• Physical behavior of rock cylinders with bedding
oriented at approximately 45 - Ø/2 degrees from
vertical
• Variation of elastic
modulus with
inclination of bedding
in dense silty Navajo
Sandstone (upper) and
buff quartz arenite
(below). The silty beds
are much stiffer and
not as weak at angles
between 30 and 60
degrees to bedding.
 Geomechanics for
Unconventional Resources
 HOW IMPORTANT IS GEOMECHANICS
FOR UNCONVENTIONAL RESOURCES?

• Geomechanics for unconventional resources differs from

conventional reservoirs due to:
• Inelastic matrix behavior
• Stress sensitivity
s
• Rock anisotropy (Cleats, laminations and natural
v
fractures)
• Rock rheology
• Low matrix permeability
Pp
• Effective horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing
technologies required. sHmax shmin
• Success heavily dependent on the stress regime and rock
property.
sHmax Azi
Formation
Strength
 WHERE DOES
GEOMECHANICS HELP?
Gradient Well Inc.
• Select optimum mud weight and mud
chemistry for safe drilling
Pp
• Optimize well trajectory Pc

Measured Depth
• Maximize production from critically stressed Shmin

natural fractures S
SHmax
• Design and optimize hydraulic fracturing
v

operation F
G
• Model depletion effect on the reservoir b
productivity and compaction
• Underbalanced drilling feasibility
For: Casing points
Subsidence

– Heavy oil
– Gas shale Overpressure

Wellbore instability
– Oil shale
– Tight sand Lost circulation
Fraccing
Compaction
Fault
stability
– Coal bed methane
Reservoir
– Gas hydrates Fractured
reservoirs
Completion integrity,
Geomechanics
Geomechanics applications:
applications: from
from well-to-field
well-to-field ,, appraisal-to-abandonment
appraisal-to-abandonment
Sanding
 32

NON-CONVENTIONAL VS.
CONVENTIONAL GEOMECHANICS
Conventionals Unconventionals
Wellbore instability Dominated by mechanical failure Dominated by physico-chemical effects

Rock behavioral models Elastic to elastoplastic Inelastic

Rock mechanical characteristics More brittle More ductile

Rock properties Isotropic to anisotropic Usually transversely isotropic (TI)

Stress regime Usually anisotropic Less anisotropic to isotropic

Rock-fluid interaction Mechanical Mechanical-chemical

Natural fractures Close/open depends on their Healed/less permeable

orientation
Borehole enlargement More breakout More washout

Pore pressure estimation Measurement Prediction

Hydraulic fracturing efficiency Higher Lower

Depletion related deformation Faulting Compaction

 ANISOTROPIC FORMATIONS
• Properties are different in different
directions.
• If properties are the same along
different directions in one horizon
but different normal to that, rock is
Transversely Isotropic (TI). Then 5
elastic constants are required:

• Shear failure characteristics of weak

planes are overriding.
 HOW ABOUT
UNCONVENTIONALS?
• Shales and coals are usually
TI.
• Spacing between weak planes
is small relative to the
borehole diameter.
• The effect MUST be taken
into account in even borehole
scale analysis.
ANISOTROPIC LOG-BASED ROCK
PROPERTIES
Cross
Cross Dipole
Dipole Sonic
Sonic logs
logs are
are usually
usually the
the best
best source
source of
of data
data for
for rock
rock
mechanical
mechanical properties
properties estimation.
estimation.

Weak
PR

Fast Weak E
Strong
Shear
PR

Slow
Shea
r Strong E

Laminatio
n

Laminatio
n

In
In transversely
transversely isotropic
isotropic (TI)
(TI) formations,
formations, the
the travel
travel time
time is
is different
different in
in
two
two perpendicular
perpendicular directions.
directions.
 ANISOTROPY EFFECT ON
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
Formation strength is strongly affected by the
orientation of weak planes to the axis of loading

b = 0° b = 30°

b = 60° b = 90°

Worst
case
 NEAR WELLBORE
STRESSES
• Max hoop stress
acts perpendicular
to shmin direction
Tensile Fracture Breakout
σhmin
Pp
• Min hoop stress acts sq (max)

sq (min)
perpendicular to sHmax
direction
Pw
• Shear failure expected along σHmax σHmax
shmin while tensile fracture
along sHmax

σhmin
 BOREHOLE BREAKOUT IN ISOTROPIC
FORMATIONS
Isotropic borehole failure Isotropic borehole failure
in anisotropic stress in isotropic stress regime
regime

σhmin

(CSIRO, 2006) (Haimson, 2008)

BOREHOLE BREAKOUT IN ANISOTROPIC FORMATIONS

Anisotropic rock failure in Borehole breakouts in isotropic vs.

anisotropic stress regime anisotropic formations

4-lobbed Normal 4-lobbed

Breakouts Breakouts Breakouts
 WELLBORE STABILITY AND UNDER-
BALANCED DRILLING FEASIBILITY
Pore MW Fracturing
Pressure Pressure

Under-balanced
Drilling

Wellbore
Wellbore
Stability
Stability
Problems
Problems

Kick or blowout Losses

Kick or blowout Losses
Wellbore Collapse
Safe Operation
Pressure
MWW???
EXAMPLE: UBD FEASIBILITY IN IRAQ

UBD Possible in
Carbonate

UBD Impossible
in Shale and Silt

UBD Possible in
Carbonate
EFFECT OF ANISOTROPY ON WELLBORE STABILITY

Collapse gradient for Collapse gradient for

isotropic formation anisotropic formation
 HYDRAULIC FRACTURING AND GEOMECHANICS
Applications
• To enhance well productivity/injectivity
• To introduce thermal energy (steam fractures)
• To measure stress (Minifrac, LOT, XLOT)
• To re-inject drill cuttings and massive waste injection

Geomechanics benefits to hydraulic fracturing

• Increase efficiency with identifying fracable intervals
• Control growth of hydrofrac
• Predict orientation of hydrofrac
• Optimize drilling direction to minimize hydraulic fracturing pressures
 HYDRAULIC FRACTURING – STRESS
EFFECT
Stress regime is the dominant factor controlling direction and
height growth of hydraulic fractures.
HOW TO MANIPULATE FRACTURE MORPHOLOGY?
 WHERE TO FRAC?
• In brittle rocks hydrofracture is more likely to be long enough to
connect the highest amount of rock volume to the parent wellbore.

• Thus, it is very important to find intervals that are brittle, in order

to maximize hydraulic stimulation.
 HOW TO DETERMINE BRITTLENESS?
MINERALOGY APPROACH
• Q-C-C (Quartz-Clay-Carbonate)
(Jarvie et al. 2007)

Most
Brittle

erat Leas
Mod Britt t
e le
le
Britt

Ternary Diagram for Barnett Shale

(SPE 115258)
 HOW TO DETERMINE BRITTLENESS?
ANISOTROPY METHOD
• Less anisotropic formations are more brittle!
Eagle Ford Shale

Laminated Shale
(More Ductile)

Non-laminated Shale
(More Brittle)

(SPE 125525, SPE 132990, Schön et al. 2006)

HOW TO DETERMINE BRITTLENESS?
DYNAMIC ELASTIC CONSTANTS
METHOD
Brittle rocks have higher YM and lower PR

(SPE 106623)
HOW TO DETERMINE BRITTLENESS?
LABORATORY METHODS
• Punch penetration test (Saffet, 2009)

• Compressive and tensile strengths

measurement:
• BI = (sc- st)/(sc+ st)
(Hunca & Das, 1974)
• BI = (sc× st)/2 (Altindag, 2002)

(Goktan & Yilmaz, 2005)

Best rock
to frac
 MAXIMIZING PRODUCTION FROM
CRITICALLY STRESSED FRACTURES
• Not all the fractures are productive. sHmin sHmax
• Critically stressed fractures should
be recognized.
• Wellbore should intersect this type of
fractures.

+ +
+ +
+
t/sv

+ + +
+ +
+ +
+

(sn – Pp)/sv
RESERVOIR EVOLUTION DUE
TO DEPLETION

Effect of depletion on in-situ stresses Effect of depletion on hydraulic fracturing

Reduction of permeability due to

effective stress increase (depletion) in
coal bed methane

(ARMS6-2010-022)
BACKUPS
 CONCEPTS AND
IMPACTS OF ROCK
STIFFNESS
 ROCK
STIFFNESS
CONTROLS
FRACTURE
SPACING
• Rock stiffness, more
than any other factor,
appears to control
spacings between
secondary fractures,
such as these stress
relief joints around
adits in the Gerstley
Mine, Death Valley
• The compressive strength exhibited by a specimen of
layered rock varies with the inclination of the rock fabric,
as shown in these data. This variance is termed
“anisotropy.”
• Testing machine stiffness is a function of elastic
distortion during loading. It can be evaluated by
advancing opposing rams without the rock
specimen, as sketched here.
 TENSILE
STRENGTH
OF ROCK
 TENSILE
FAILURE MODES
• Rock is much weaker
in tension than in
compression.
• Most rock failures
involve tensile
fractures
• Three types: direct
tension; flexural
tension; and indirect
tension
• The bending stress influences the ultimate shear strength of
rock slabs. Like concrete, rock is weak in induced tension. A
small amount of confinement or tensile reinforcement can
have a significant impact on strength.
INDUCED TENSION
(BRAZILIAN) TEST
• The Brazilian splitting
tension test is the most
commonly employed for rock
• Concrete strength is usually
about 1/12th the compressive
strength
• In rock, the tensile strength
can vary between 1/12th and
1/70th of the compressive
strength, depending on
porosity and weathering.
• The Brazilian splitting tension test
loads a cylinder core of rock with 0.5:1
length-to-diameter ratio loaded over
15% of the circumference, until the
load falls off and a hairline crack
forms, shown at right
• These diagrams illustrate how the elastic
modulus in compression and tension can be
measured.
• Direct tension test for an unconfined rock core,
taken to rupture. Note how the elastic modulus is
less in tension than in compression, and how it
diminishes above 80% of the peak strength.
• Tensile strength can be significantly reduced by
load cycling, as shown in these tests.
• Definitions of loading geometry for splitting
tension tests
• Strength anisotropy in splitting tension tests
on Entrada Sandstone
• Layered rocks are highly anisotropic and can be expected to
exhibit lower splitting tensile strength parallel to planes of
bedding. This plot also illustrates the scale effect, varying
specimen diameter
• Variation in splitting tensile strength with bed
inclination, varying the length-to-depth ratio of
the rock cylinders, as shown.
• Splitting tension test data on soft to brittle rock, compared
with concrete and Griffith failure criterion
• Note how the ratio between compressive and tensile strength
degrades with increasing compressive strength. In particular,
note envelope of data for concrete and the impact on
anisotropy in layered sedimentary rocks.
PHYSICAL ATTRIBUTES OF
ROCK JOINTS
Plan view illustrating spatial arraignment of Block diagram showing systematic joint
systematic regional joints. Note overlapping clusters of one joint set, or suite
nature and tendency to form clusters

Block diagram illustrating how joints of Block diagram illustrating how joint sets
the same set or suite may occasionally intersect one another. These appear
intersect one another regular plan, but cross one another in
section.
• Schematic block diagram showing observed variables in
spacing of primary systematic regional joints. Note how
the spacing between joints decreases with decreasing bed
thickness, likely due to variances in layer stiffness.
• Systematic joints on a 1600 foot high exposure of the Navajo
Sandstone near Hildale, Utah. Joint spacings are between
85 and 125 feet.
 INTENSITY OF
JOINTS
• Joint intensity refers to how
numerous joints are; e.g.
the physical separation, or,
spacing, between adjacent
joints
• The stiffness of a rock mass
depends on the stiffness of
the rock fabric AND the
joint intensity, aperture,
and infilling.
Less stiff
JOINT
SPACING
• Stiff units tend to
be more brittle,
and spawn
Stiff & fractures on close
brittle spacings, as viewed
here
• Slickrock Member
of the Entrada
Formation, Broken
Arch at Arches
National Park
Less stiff
• Upper sketch – Block diagram showing plumose structures on the face of
a joint
• Lower sketch – Sketch showing plumose and conchoidal structure on the
complete face of a joint, as they formed (seldom visible in its whole).
The conchoids likely represent the physical extent of fracture extension
during formation of the joint trace
SURFACE ROUGHNESS

• Calcite accumulations on a
joint face are often
misinterpreted as
slickensides. These
accretions are ascribable to
groundwater percolation.
• Calcite striae can form
parallel to the cross bed
laminae or the direction of
seepage.
 MINERAL HALOS AND
“HEALED JOINTS”

• Groundwater
preferentially flows
through joints in rock
• The chemistry of that
groundwater determines
whether the joints
experienced solutioning
or infilling.
• This shows a healed joint
with mineralization halos
• Undulating conchoidal ridges on the lower face of a large
systematic joint in the Navajo Sandstone at Zion National
Park. This conchoidal ridge (next to the park ranger) has an
amplitude of almost 3 feet.
• Joint Plane Surfaces: 1) main joint face; 2) joint
fringe; 3) plumose structure; 4) fringe joints (B-
planes); 5) C fractures; 6) shoulder of joint plane;
and 7) trace of main joint face (taken from Hodgson,
1961)
OTHER ATTRIBUTES OF ROCK JOINTS

Joint aperture refers to the

spacing between opposing
faces of the same joint
JOINT APERTURE
AFFECTED BY
DILATION
• Joints are zero tension
boundaries, which can
dilate, or open up, in
response to changing loads
or tectonic deformation
• This shows the opposing
faces of a single joint in the
grabens of Canyonlands,
caused by solution
underlying salt diapirs
JOINT CONTROL

• Most cliffs are joint

controlled, by one, two, or
three sets of primary
regional systematic joints.
• Note dilation of joints seen
here
• These joints are often open
behind the cliff face, as
shown here (Coconino
Sandstone beneath
Monument Point, North
Rim of the Grand Canyon)
• A common problem with mapping discontinuities exposed in outcrops are
secondary fractures that tend to parallel the valley side, known as valley-
side joints. These joints are not often visible and are, generally, the most
deadly features.