‫د صباخیرالدین‬

•The hypothalamus The hypothalamus makes up the lower

region of the diencephalons and lies just above the brain stem oversees
many internal body conditions.
• 
• 
the anterior lobe the hypothalamo–hypophyseal portal vessels •
and the posterior lobe (neurohypophysis). The )adenohypophysis( •
Anterior pituitary is involved in sending
•hormones that control all other hormones of the body.
• 
• 
Hormones can be chemically classified into three groups •
 •
Amino acid-derived: Hormones that are modified .1 •
.amino acids •
Polypeptide and proteins: Hormones that are chains of amino .2 •
acids of less than or more than about 100 amino
acids, respectively. Some protein hormones are actually glycoproteins, •
containing glucose or other carbohydrate
Groups •
Steroids: Hormones that are lipids synthesized from cholesterol. .3 •
Steroids are characterized by four interlocking
Mechanism of action
Hormones activate target cells by one of two methods, depending upon the chemical nature of•
.the hormone
Lipid-soluble hormones (steroid hormones and hormones of the thyroid gland) diffuse • •
through the cell
membranes of target cells. The lipid-soluble hormone then binds to a receptor protein that, in •
turn, activates a DNA segment that turns on specific genes. The proteins produced as result of
the transcription of the genes and
subsequent translation of mRNA act as enzymes that regulate specific physiological cell •
.activity
Water-soluble hormones (polypeptide, protein, and most amino acid hormones) bind to a • •
receptor protein on the
plasma membrane of the cell. The receptor protein, in turn, stimulates the production of one •
of the following
second messengers(CAMP) •
• 
Control of Hormone Secretion

Negative Feedback

Most endocrine glands are under negative feedback control that

acts to maintain homoeostasis, i.e., prevent deviation from an
ideal value. A key example of a negative feedback system is the
regulation of the thyroid hormone thyroxine, which regulates
numerous key metabolic processes.

Positive Feedback

Positive feedback mechanisms control self-perpetuating events,

that is, they encourage deviation from the mean. Positive
feedback systems are much less common although they do exist.
A key example occurs during childbirth
Thyroid hormones
The fetal hypothalamus and pituitary start to secrete thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) •
and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). TSH is first measurable at 11 weeks.[19] By 18–20
thyroxine weeks, the production of
  •
  •
•introduction
•he thyroid is located at the front of the neck, below the Adam's apple. Microscopically, the
functional unit of the thyroid gland is the spherical thyroid follicle, The thyroid gland secretes
three hormones: the two thyroid hormones – triiodothyronine ( T3), and thyroxine (T4), and a 
peptide hormone, calcitonin. The thyroid hormones influence the metabolic rate and 
protein synthesis, and in children, growth and development. Calcitonin plays a role in 
calcium homeostasis.[1] Secretion of the two thyroid hormones is regulated by 
thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), which is secreted from the anterior pituitary gland. TSH is
regulated by thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), which is produced by the hypothalamus
• The thyroid hormones are created from iodine and tyrosine. T3 is so named because
it contains three atoms of iodine per molecule and T4 contains four atoms of iodine
per molecule.[25] The thyroid hormones have a wide range of effects on the human
body. These include:
• Thyroid function
• 1-Developmental.(physical ,mental & sexual development) Thyroid hormones are
important for normal development.[28] They increase the growth rate of young
people,[29] and cells of the developing brain are a major target for the thyroid
hormones T3 and T4. Thyroid hormones play a particularly crucial role in brain
maturation during fetal development and first few years of postnatal life
• The thyroid hormones also play a role in maintaining normal sexual function, sleep,
and thought patterns. Increased levels are associated with increased speed
• of thought generation but decreased focus. Sexual function, including
libido and the maintenance of a normal menstrual cycle, are
influenced by thyroid hormones
• 2-Metabolic. The thyroid hormones increase the basal metabolic rate
 and have effects on almost all body tissues. Appetite, the absorption
of substances, and gut motility are all influenced by thyroid
hormones.[27] They increase the absorption in the gut, generation, 
uptake by cells, and breakdown of glucose. They stimulate the 
breakdown of fats, and increase the number of free fatty acids
. Despite increasing free fatty acids, thyroid hormones
• decrease cholesterol levels (LDL ,by increase receptor in the
liver) ,and perhaps by increasing the rate of secretion of cholesterol
in bile.
• 3-Cardiovascular. The hormones increase the rate and strength of the
heartbeat. They increase the rate of breathing, intake and
consumption of oxygen, and increase the activity of mitochondria
. Combined, these factors increase blood flow and the body's
temperature and ( increased sensitivity to catechlamine)
Growth Hormone

• Function
• insulin like action
• GH also stimulates, through the JAK-STAT signaling pathway,the production of insulin-
like growth factor 1 (IGF-1, formerly known as somatomedin), 1-a hormone
homologous to proinsulin.2-The liver is a major target organ of GH for this process and
is the principal site of IGF-1 production. IGF-1 has growth-3-stimulating effects on a
wide variety of tissues. Additional IGF-1 is generated within target tissues, making it
what appears to be both an endocrine and an autocrine/paracrine hormone. IGF-1 also
has stimulatory effects on osteoblast and chondrocyte activity to promote bone growth
• Effects of growth hormone on the tissues of the body can generally be described as
anabolic (building up). Like most other protein hormones, GH acts by interacting with a
specific receptor on the surface of cell
• Ant insulin action
• Fat metabolism: Growth hormone enhances the utilization of fat by
stimulating triglyceride breakdown and oxidation in adipocytes.
• Carbohydrate metabolism: Growth hormone is one of a battery of
hormones that serves to maintain blood glucose within a normal range.
Growth hormone is often said to have anti-insulin activity, because it
supresses the abilities of insulin to stimulate uptake of glucose in peripheral
tissues and enhance glucose synthesis in the liver. Somewhat paradoxically,
administration of growth hormone stimulates insulin secretion, leading to
hyperinsulinemia
•
prolactin
  •
The number of lactotrophs will increase during pregnancy in response to the physiological ( pro )= ** •
need to develop breast tissues and to prepare for milk production
Prolactin production is regulated at the gene transcription level. Factors that stimulate prolactin)lactin ( ** •
secretion to upregulate prolactin gene transcription while factors that inhibit prolactin secretion
,.downregulate prolactin gene transcription(Jak stat)
dopamine has an inhibitory effect on prolactin. In the absence of pregnancy (i.e., high estrogen) or** •
lactation, Estrogen in high levels, as the case with pregnancy, stimulate prolactin release directly from the
anterior pituitary. **Interestingly, suckling stimulates sensory nerves in the nipple that carries the signal
via the spinal cord to arcuate nucleus which inhibits dopamine release by removing the inhibitory action of
dopamine on prolactin. At the same time, the afferent signal from the nipple activates supraoptic and
.paraventricular nuclei to increase the** production of oxytocin which allows for milk ejection
Prolactin also has an inhibitory effect on the release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)** •
.produced by the hypothalamus-inhibiting FSH and LH release from the anterior pituitary
.Prolactin is synthesized by lactotrophs in the anterior pituitary gland ** •
The main 2 functions of prolactin are to stimulate milk production •
and to develop breast tissues. Prolactin plays a role in breast
development with
estrogen( nipple and duct)-1 •
progesterone by stimulating further breast growth and-2 •
enlargement of the alveoli in preparation for lactation. In addition •
,to breast tissues development
prolactin is an essential player in milk production-3 •
 F.galactorrhea

as result of hypogonadism caused by reduced secretion of LH

and FSH menstrual irregularities(amenorrhea), galactorrhea,
and infertility
M.. Gyencomastea and infertility
dopamine agonist bromocriptine )hyper (
hypoProlactinoma  

as result of hypogonadism caused by reduced secretion of LH

and FSH Dopamine antagonist
A Galactorrhea

Sheehan syndrome
Sheehan syndrome is characterized by infarction of the anterior pituitary following postpartum.
The pathophysiology of Sheehan syndrome involves a significant blood loss during childbirth
which compromises the blood supply to the enlarged anterior pituitary causing it to undergo
ischemic necrosis. severe post partum h.ge
Aldosterone
 •
 •
• Aldosterone is a hormone produced in the outer section (cortex) of
the adrenal glands, which sit above the kidneys. It plays a central role
in the regulation of blood pressure mainly by acting on organs such as
the kidney and the colon to increase the amount of salt (sodium)
reabsorbed into the bloodstream and to increase the amount of 
potassium excreted in the urine. Aldosterone also causes water to be
reabsorbed along with sodium; this increases blood volume and
therefore blood pressure
• Aldosterone tends to promote Na+ and water retention, and lower plasma K+ concentration by the following
mechanisms:
• Acting on the nuclear mineralocorticoid receptors (MR) within the principal cells of the distal tubule and the 
collecting duct of the kidney nephron, it upregulates and activates the basolateral Na+/K+ pumps, which pumps
three sodium ions out of the cell, into the interstitial fluid and two potassium ions into the cell from the interstitial
fluid. This creates a concentration gradient which results in reabsorption of sodium (Na +) ions and water (which
follows sodium) into the blood, and secreting potassium (K +) ions into the urine (lumen of collecting duct).
• Aldosterone upregulates epithelial sodium channels (ENaCs) in the collecting duct and the colon, increasing apical
membrane permeability for Na+ and thus absorption.
• Cl− is reabsorbed in conjunction with sodium cations to maintain the system's electrochemical balance.
• Aldosterone stimulates the secretion of K+ into the tubular lumen.[11]
• Aldosterone stimulates Na+ and water reabsorption from the gut, salivary and sweat glands in exchange for K +.
• Aldosterone stimulates secretion of H+ via the H+/ATPase in the intercalated cells of the cortical collecting tubules
• Aldosterone upregulates expression of NCC in the distal convoluted tubule chronically and its activity acutely. [12]
Function
AVP has two primary functions. First, it increases the amount of
solute-free water reabsorbed back into the circulation from the
filtrate in the kidney tubules of the nephrons. Second, ADH
constricts arterioles, which increases 
peripheral vascular resistance and raises arterial blood pressure.
A third function is possible. Some AVP may be released directly
into the brain from the hypothalamus,
Vasopressin regulates the tonicity of body fluids. It is released
from the posterior pituitary in response to hypertonicity and
causes the kidneys to reabsorb solute-free water and return it to
the circulation from the tubules of the nephron, thus returning
the tonicity of the body fluids toward normal. An incidental
consequence of this renal reabsorption of water is concentrated 
urine and reduced urine volume. AVP released in high
concentrations may also raise blood pressure by inducing
moderate vasoconstriction
Kidney •
• Vasopressin has three main effects which are:
• Increasing the water permeability of initial and cortical collecting tubules as well as
outer and inner medullary collecting duct in the kidney, thus allowing water
reabsorption and excretion of more concentrated urine, i.e., antidiuresis. This occurs
through increased transcription and insertion of water channels (Aquaporin-2) into
the apical membrane of collecting tubule and collecting duct epithelial cells.[13]
 Aquaporins allow water to move down their osmotic gradient and out of the
nephron, increasing the amount of water re-absorbed from the filtrate (forming
urine) back into the bloodstream. This effect is mediated by V2 receptors. Vaopressin
also increases the concentration of calcium in the collecting duct cells, by episodic
release from intracellular stores. Vasopressin, acting through cAMP, also increases
• transcription of the aquaporin-2 gene, thus increasing the total number of
aquaporin-2 molecules in collecting duct cells
• Increasing permeability of the inner medullary portion of the collecting duct to urea
 by regulating the cell surface expression of urea transporters,[15] which facilitates its
reabsorption into the medullary interstitium as it travels down the concentration
gradient created by removing water from the connecting tubule, 
cortical collecting duct, and outer medullary collecting duct.
• Acute increase of sodium absorption across the ascending loop of Henle. This adds
to the countercurrent multiplication which aids in proper water reabsorption later in
the distal tubule and collecting duct.
• Central nervous system
• Vasopressin released within the brain may have several actions:
 Vasopressin is released into the brain in a circadian rhythm by neurons
of the suprachiasmatic nucleus
 Vasopressin released from centrally projecting hypothalamic neurons is
involved in aggression, blood pressure regulation, and temperature
regulation.
 Recent evidence suggests that vasopressin may have analgesic effects.
The analgesia effects of vasopressin were found to be dependent on
both stress and sex