ETHICAL ISSUES

SETTING AND
HANDLING OF
EQUIPMENT
WRITING THE
METHODOLOGY
BY: GROUP 1
Writing the Methodology
Setting and Handling of
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Ethical Issues
 ? What is Research
the Methodology

Ethics?
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Research ethics are the set of ethics

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that govern how scientific and other
research is performed at research
institutions such as universities, and
how it is disseminated.
 When most people think of research ethics,
they think about issues that arise when research
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involves human or animal subjects.

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While these issues are indeed a key part of
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research ethics, there are also wider issues

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about standards of conduct. These include the
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importance of publishing findings in a

transparent way, not plagiarizing others’ work,
and not falsifying work
 Ethics are broadly the set of rules, written and
unwritten, that govern our expectations of our
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own and others’ behaviour.

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Effectively, they set out how we expect others
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to behave, and why. While there is broad

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agreement on some ethical values (for example,

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Setting

that murder is bad), there is also wide variation

on how exactly these values should be
interpreted in practice.
 ? Importance of
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Research Ethics
and Handling of

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Research ethics are important for a number of

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reasons.
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•They promote the aims of research, such as

expanding knowledge.
 •They support the values required for
collaborative work, such as mutual respect and
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fairness. This is essential because scientific

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research depends on collaboration between

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researchers and groups.

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•They mean that researchers can be held

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accountable for their actions. Many researchers
Setting

are supported by public money, and regulations

on conflicts of interest, misconduct, and research
involving humans or animals are necessary to
ensure that money is spent appropriately.
 the Methodology

•They ensure that the public can trust

and Handling of

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research. For people to support and fund
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research, they have to be confident in it.

•They support important social and

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moral values, such as the principle of

doing no harm to others.
 ? Code of Ethics
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Government agencies who fund or commission

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research often publish codes of conduct for

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researchers, or codes of ethics.
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For example, the US National Institutes of Health

(NIH) and Food and Drug Administration (FDA) both
publish ethical codes. Some ethical codes may have
the force of law behind them, while others may simply
be advisable.
 Be aware that even if you do nothing illegal, doing
something unethical may end your research career.
Many or even most ethical codes cover the following
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areas:

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•Honesty and Integrity
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This means that you need to report your research

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honestly, and that this applies to your methods (what

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you did), your data, your results, and whether you have
Setting

previously published any of it. You should not make up

any data, including extrapolating unreasonably from
some of your results, or do anything which could be
construed as trying to mislead anyone. It is better to
undersell than over-exaggerate your findings.
 When working with others, you should always
keep to any agreements, and act sincerely.
•Objectivity
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You should aim to avoid bias in any aspect of

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your research, including design, data analysis,
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interpretation, and peer review. For example, you

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should never recommend as a peer reviewer

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Setting

someone you know, or who you have worked with,

and you should try to ensure that no groups are
inadvertently excluded from your research. This
also means that you need to disclose any personal
or financial interests that may affect your research.
 Carefulness
Take care in carrying out your research to avoid
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and Handling of

careless mistakes. You should also review your

Ethical Issues
work carefully and critically to ensure that your
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results are credible. It is also important to keep

full records of your research. If you are asked to
Setting

act as a peer reviewer, you should take the time to

do the job effectively and fully.
 •Openness
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You should always be prepared to share your

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data and results, along with any new tools that
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you have developed, when you publish your

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findings, as this helps to further knowledge and

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Setting

advance science. You should also be open to

criticism and new ideas
 •Respect for Intellectual Property
You should never plagiarize, or copy, other
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people’s work and try to pass it off as your own.

and Handling of

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You should always ask for permission before using
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other people’s tools or methods, unpublished

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data or results. Not doing so is

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plagiarism. Obviously, you need to respect
Setting

copyrights and patents, together with other forms

of intellectual property, and always acknowledge
contributions to your research. If in doubt,
acknowledge, to avoid any risk of plagiarism.
 •Confidentiality
You should respect anything that has been
the Methodology

provided in confidence. You should also follow

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guidelines on protection of sensitive information
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such as patient records.

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•Responsible Publication

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You should publish to advance to state of
Setting

research and knowledge, and not just to advance

your career. This means, in essence, that you
should not publish anything that is not new, or
that duplicates someone else’s work.
 •Legality
You should always be aware of laws and
the Methodology

regulations that govern your work, and be sure

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that you conform to them.
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•Animal Care
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If you are using animals in your research, you

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should always be sure that your experiments are
Setting

both necessary and well-designed. You should

also show respect for the animals you are using,
and make sure that they are properly cared for.
 •Human Subjects Protection
If your research involves people, you should make
sure that you reduce any possible harm to the
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minimum, and maximise the benefits both to

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participants and other people.
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This means, for example, that you should not expose

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people to more tests than are strictly necessary to fulfill

your research aims. You should always respect human
Setting

rights, including the right to privacy and autonomy. You

may need to take particular care with vulnerable
groups, which include, but are not limited to, children,
older people, and those with learning difficulties.
 Working safely with hazardous chemicals
requires proper use of laboratory equipment.
the Methodology

Setting and Handling of

Maintenance and regular inspection of laboratory

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equipment are essential parts of this activity.

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Many of the accidents that occur in the

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laboratory can be attributed to improper use or
maintenance of laboratory equipment. This
chapter discusses prudent practices for handling
equipment used frequently in laboratories.
 The most common equipment-related hazards in
laboratories come from devices powered by electricity devices
for work with compressed gases, and devices for high or low
the Methodology

pressures and temperatures. Other physical hazards include

Setting and Handling of

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electromagnetic radiation from lasers and radio-frequency
generating devices. Seemingly ordinary hazards such as floods

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from water-cooled equipment, accidents with rotating

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equipment and machines or tools for cutting and drilling, noise
extremes, slips, trips, falls, lifting, and poor ergonomics account
for the greatest frequency of laboratory accidents and injuries.
Understandably, injuries to the hands are very common in the
laboratory. Care should be taken to use appropriate gloves
when handling laboratory equipment to protect against
electrical, thermal, and chemical burns, cuts, and punctures.
 ?
Working with
water-cooled
the Methodology

Setting and Handling of

Equipment

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Equipment
The use of water as a coolant in laboratory condensers and other
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equipment is common practice. Although tap water is often used for

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these purposes, this practice should be discouraged. In many localities
conserving water is essential and makes tap water inappropriate. In
addition, the potential for a flood is greatly increased. Refrigerated
recirculator’s can be expensive, but are preferred for cooling laboratory
equipment to conserve water and to minimize the impact of floods. To
prevent freezing at the refrigeration coils, using a mixture of water and
ethylene glycol as the coolant is prudent. Spills of this mixture are very
slippery and must be cleaned thoroughly to prevent slips and falls.
 Most flooding occurs when the tubing supplying the
water to the condenser disconnects. Hoses can pop off
when building water pressure fluctuates, causing
the Methodology

irregular flows, or can break when the hose material has

Setting and Handling of

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deteriorated from long-term or improper use. Floods

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also result when exit hoses jump out of the sink from a
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strong flow pulse or sink drains are blocked by an

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accumulation of extraneous material. Proper use of hose
clamps and maintenance of the entire cooling system or
alternative use of a portable cooling bath with suction
feed can resolve such problems. Plastic locking
disconnects can make it easy to unfasten water lines
without having to unclamp and reclamp secured lines.
 Some quick disconnects also incorporate check
valves, which do not allow flow into or out of
either half of the connection when disconnected.
the Methodology

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This feature allows for disconnecting and

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reconnecting with minimal spillage of water. To

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reduce the possibility of overpressurization of

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fittings or glassware, consider installing a vented
pressure relief device on the water supply.
Interlocks are also available that shut off electrical
power in the event of loss of coolant flow and are
recommended for unattended operations.
 ?
Working with
Electrically Powered
the Methodology

Laboratory Equipment

Setting and Handling of

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Electrically powered equipment is used routinely for laboratory
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operations requiring heating, cooling, agitation or mixing, and pumping.

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Electrically powered equipment found in the laboratory includes fluid and
vacuum pumps, lasers, power supplies, both electrophoresis and
electrochemical apparatus, x-ray equipment, stirrers, hot plates, heating
mantles, microwave ovens, and ultrasonicators. Attention must be paid
to both the mechanical and the electrical hazards inherent in using these
devices. High-voltage and high-power requirements are increasingly
prevalent; therefore prudent practices for handling these devices are
increasingly necessary.
 Electric shock is the major electrical hazard.
Although relatively low current of 10 mA poses some
danger, 80 to 100 mA can be fatal. In addition, if
the Methodology

Setting and Handling of

improperly used, electrical equipment can ignite

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flammable or explosive vapors. Most of the risks can

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be minimized by regular proper maintenance and a
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clear understanding of the correct use of the device.

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Before beginning any work, all personnel should be
shown and trained in the use of all electrical power
sources and the location of emergency shutoff
switches. Information about emergency procedures
can be found in section 7.G.
 ? General Principles
the Methodology

Setting and Handling of

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Particular caution must be exercised during installation,
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modification, and repair, as well as during use of the

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equipment. In order to ensure safe operation, all electrical
equipment must be installed and maintained in accordance
with the provisions of the National Electrical Code (NEC) of the
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA, 1991a). Laboratory
workers should also consult state and local codes and
regulations, which may contain special provisions and be more
stringent than the NEC and NFPA rules.
 All repair and calibration work on electrical
equipment must be carried out by properly trained
and qualified personnel. Before modification,
the Methodology

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installation, or even minor repairs of electrical

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equipment are carried out, the devices must be

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deenergized and all capacitors discharged safely.

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Furthermore, this deenergized and/or discharged
condition must be verified before proceeding
(note that OSHA Control of Hazardous Energy
Standard (29 CFR 1910.147; Lock out/Tag out)
applies).
 It is imperative that each person participating in
any experiment involving the use of electrical
equipment be aware of all applicable equipment
the Methodology

Setting and Handling of

safety issues and be briefed on any potential

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problems. Workers can significantly reduce hazards

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and dangerous behavior by following some basic

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principles and techniques: checking and rechecking
outlet receptacles (section 6.C.1.1), making certain
that wiring complies with national standards and
recommendations (section 6.C.1.2), and reviewing
general precautions (section 6.C.1.3) and personal
safety techniques (section 6.C.1.4).
 A key part of your dissertation or thesis

the Methodology
is the methodology. This is not quite the

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same as ‘methods’.

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The methodology describes the broad

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philosophical underpinning to your chosen

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research methods, including whether you
are using qualitative or quantitative
methods, or a mixture of both, and why.
 You should be clear about the academic

the Methodology
basis for all the choices of research

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methods that you have made. 'I was

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interested' or 'I thought...' is not enough;

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there must be good academic reasons for
your choice.
 ?
What to include
in your

the Methodology
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Methodology

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If you are submitting your dissertation in sections,

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with the methodology submitted before you actually

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undertake the research, you should use this section to
set out exactly what you plan to do.
The methodology should be linked back to the
literature to explain why you are using certain
methods, and the academic basis of your choice.
 If you are submitting as a single thesis,

the Methodology
then the Methodology should explain

Setting and Handling of

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what you did, with any refinements that

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you made as your work progressed. Again,

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it should have a clear academic
justification of all the choices that you
made and be linked back to the literature.
 ?
Common Research
Methods for

the Methodology
the Social Sciences

Setting and Handling of

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There are numerous research methods that can be

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used when researching scientific subjects, you should

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discuss which are the most appropriate for your
research with your supervisor.

The following research methods are commonly

used in social science, involving human subjects:
Interviews
One of the most flexible and widely used methods for
gaining qualitative information about people’s experiences,

the Methodology
views and feelings is the interview. 

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An interview can be thought of as a guided conversation

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between a researcher (you) and somebody from whom you

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wish to learn something (often referred to as the

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‘informant’). 
The level of structure in an interview can vary, but most
commonly interviewers follow a semi-structured format.  This
means that the interviewer will develop a guide to the topics
that he or she wishes to cover in the conversation, and may
even write out a number of questions to ask. 
 However, the interviewer is free to follow different paths
of conversation that emerge over the course of the interview,
or to prompt the informant to clarify and expand on certain

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points. Therefore, interviews are particularly good tools for

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gaining detailed information where the research question is

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open-ended in terms of the range of possible answers.

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Interviews are not particularly well suited for gaining

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information from large numbers of people. Interviews are
time-consuming, and so careful attention needs to be given
to selecting informants who will have the knowledge or
experiences necessary to answer the research question.  
 Observations
If a researcher wants to know what people do under certain

the Methodology
circumstances, the most straightforward way to get this

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information is sometimes simply to watch them under those

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circumstances.

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Observations can form a part of either quantitative or
qualitative research.  For instance, if a researcher wants to

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determine whether the introduction of a traffic sign
Makes any difference to the number of cars slowing down at a
dangerous curve, she or he could sit near the curve and count the
number of cars that do and do not slow down.  Because the data
will be numbers of cars, this is an example of quantitative
observation.
 A researcher wanting to know how people react to a
billboard advertisement might spend time watching and
describing the reactions of the people.  In this case, the

the Methodology
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data would be descriptive, and would therefore be

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qualitative.

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There are a number of potential ethical concerns that

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can arise with an observation study. Do the people being

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studied know that they are under observation?  Can they
give their consent?  If some people are unhappy with
being observed, is it possible to ‘remove’ them from the
study while still carrying out observations of the others
around them?
 ?
How to choose your
Methodology and

the Methodology
Precise Research

Setting and Handling of

Methods

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Your methodology should be linked back to your

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research questions and previous research.

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Visit your university or college library and ask
the librarians for help; they should be able to help
you to identify the standard research method
textbooks in your field. See also our section
on Research Methods for some further ideas.
 Such books will help you to identify your broad
research philosophy, and then choose methods
which relate to that. This section of your

the Methodology
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dissertation or thesis should set your research in

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the context of its theoretical underpinnings.

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The methodology should also explain the

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weaknesses of your chosen approach and how you
plan to avoid the worst pitfalls, perhaps by
triangulating your data with other methods, or why
you do not think the weakness is relevant.
 For every philosophical underpinning, you will

the Methodology
almost certainly be able to find researchers who

Setting and Handling of

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support it and those who don’t.

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Use the arguments for and against expressed in

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the literature to explain why you have chosen to

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use this methodology or why the weaknesses
don’t matter here.
 ? Structuring your

Writing the Methodology

Methodology

Setting and Handling of

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It is usually helpful to start your section on
methodology by setting out the conceptual

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framework in which you plan to operate with
reference to the key texts on that approach.
 You should be clear throughout about the
strengths and weaknesses of your chosen

the Methodology
approach and how you plan to address them. You

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should also note any issues of which to be aware,

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for example in sample selection or to make your

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findings more relevant.

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You should then move on to discuss your
research questions, and how you plan to address
each of them.
 This is the point at which to set out your chosen
research methods, including their theoretical

the Methodology
basis, and the literature supporting them. You

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should make clear whether you think the method

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is ‘tried and tested’ or much more experimental,

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and what kind of reliance you could place on the

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results. You will also need to discuss this again in
the discussion section.
Your research may even aim to test the research
methods, to see if they work in certain
circumstances.
 the Methodology
You should conclude by summarizing your

Setting and Handling of

research methods, the underpinning approach,

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and what you see as the key challenges that you

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will face in your research. Again, these are the

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areas that you will want to revisit in your
discussion
 ? Example of
Meyhodology

Writing the Methodology

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Setting and Handling of
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