Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, 7e: Chapter 3: Prenatal

Childhood and
Adolescence: Voyages
in Development,
7e
Chapter 3: Prenatal
Development
©2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 1
Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

3-1 Describe the events of the germinal stage of prenatal development,
focusing on source of nourishment and implantation.
3-2 Describe the events of the embryonic stage of prenatal development,
focusing on development of the major organ systems, sexual
differentiation, the amniotic sac, and the placenta.
3-3 Describe the events of the fetal stage of prenatal development.
3-4 Describe environmental influences on the embryo and fetus, focusing
on maternal nutrition, teratogens, critical periods of vulnerability, drugs
taken by the mother, and parental smoking.
3.1 The Germinal Stage:
Wanderings
The Germinal Stage
• Period from conception to implantation (approximately 2 weeks)

• Zygote begins dividing within 36 hours of conception
− Wanders in uterus 3–4 days before implanting in uterine wall
− Implantation takes another week or so
• Blastocyst—cell differentiation
− Two distinct layers in inner blastocyst = embryonic disk
− Outer blastocyst differentiates into four membranes = trophoblast
Without Visible Means of Support?
• Prior to implantation, dividing cells are nourished by the yolk of the

original egg
• No gain in mass until implantation
• Miscarriage (spontaneous abortion)
− Usually stems from abnormalities in development
− One-third of all pregnancies result in miscarriage
 Most occur in first 3 months
The Ovarian Cycle, Conception, and the Early
Days of the Germinal Stage
3.2 The Embryonic Stage
Developmental Trends in the Embryonic Stage
• Begins with implantation (third week) and continues through week 8

− Major organ systems differentiate
• Developmental trends
− Cephalocaudal (head to tail): growth of the head takes precedence over
lower parts of the body
− Proximodistal (near to far): from central axis of body outward
Human Embryos and Fetuses at Various Stages of
Development
The Embryonic Stage (1 of 3)
• Ectoderm (outer layer of embryonic disk) develops into nervous

system, sensory organs, nails, hair, teeth, and outer layer of skin
− Neural tube develops into brain and spinal cord (21 days)
• Endoderm (inner layer of embryonic disk) develops into digestive and
respiratory systems, liver, and pancreas
• Mesoderm (middle layer of embryonic disk) develops into excretory,
reproductive, and circulatory systems, as well as muscles, skeleton, and
inner layer of skin
• Head and blood vessels begin to form (3rd week)

• Arm buds and leg buds appear (4th week)
• Eyes, ears, nose, and mouth begin to take shape
• Limbs are elongating; facial features become distinct (8th week)
• Teeth buds have formed, kidneys and liver are functioning (8th week)
• By end of first month, the neural tube is producing 400 million neurons
per day
• Neurons migrate to parts of the brain where they will function as
different brain structures
• Neurons form the cerebral hemispheres (5th week)
• Cells in the nervous system begin to release neurotransmitters (2nd
month)
Sexual Differentiation: How Do Some Babies
Develop into Girls and Others into Boys?
• Nondescript sex organs formed (5–6 weeks)
• Internal and external genitals at this stage resemble female structures
− Müllerian (female) ducts; Wolffian (male) ducts
• Sex organs begin to differentiate based on genetic code (7th week)
− Y chromosome causes testes to differentiate
− No Y chromosome causes ovaries to differentiate
• Distinct external genital structures (4 months)
Development of Internal Genital Organs
A Human Embryo at 7 Weeks
At this late point in the embryonic stage, the major organ systems except
for the sex organs have already become differentiated.
Sex Hormones and Sexual Differentiation
(1 of 2)
• Male hormonal influences
− Testes produce androgens
− Testosterone differentiates male duct system (Wolffian)
− Dihydrotestosterone (DHT) triggers development of male external genital
organs
− Müllerian inhibiting substance (MIS) prevents Müllerian ducts from
developing into female duct system
Sex Hormones and Sexual Differentiation
(2 of 2)
• Female hormonal influences
− Small amounts of androgens are produced
 These play a role in secondary sexual characteristics in adolescence
 Important to female sex drive
− Wolffian ducts degenerate; Müllerian ducts develop into fallopian tubes,
uterus, and inner part of the vagina
What Is the Amniotic Sac? Why Is It Called a
“Shock Absorber”?
• Amniotic sac is surrounded by a clear membrane and contains amniotic
fluid
− Sac is called a “shock absorber” because it protects the embryo/fetus
within the uterus
 Allows movement without injury
 Maintains even temperature
How Does the Embryo Get Nourishment from Its
Mother? How Does It Eliminate Waste Products?
• Placenta
− Mass of tissue exchanges nutrients and wastes between embryo/fetus and
mother
− Umbilical cord connects the fetus to the placenta
Functions of the Placenta
• Acts as a filter between the bloodstream of the mother and the

bloodstream of the embryo/fetus
− Oxygen and nutrients reach the child
− Carbon dioxide and waste pass to the mother
− Many germs and drugs may also reach the child
• Secretes hormones that prepare breasts for nursing and stimulate
contractions that prompt childbirth
3.3 The Fetal Stage
The Fetal Stage: End of First Trimester
• Third month through birth

• End of first trimester
− Major organ systems formed
− Fingers and toes formed
− Eyes can be distinguished
− Sex of fetus can be determined visually
The Fetal Stage: End of Second Trimester
• End of second trimester

− Opens and shuts eyes
− Sucks its thumb
− Alternates between wakefulness and sleep
− Responds to light and sound
• If born at 22–25 weeks—about 50–60% survival rate
− Survival rate is related to quality of care
The Fetal Stage: End of Third Trimester
• End of third trimester

− Heart and lungs increasingly capable of sustaining independent life
− Gains in weight and length
− During 7th month, fetus turns upside down in uterus
• If born at end of 7th month—nearly 90% survival rate
• If born at end of 8th month—odds overwhelmingly in favor of survival
The Fetal Stage: Movement
• First movements begin about 4th or 5th month

− By 29–30 weeks, fetus:
 Moves vigorously and turns somersaults
 Begins slow squirming movements
 Begins sharp jabbing and kicking movements
• As fetus grows, movement becomes restricted
• Prenatal activity predicts activity levels after birth
A Human Fetus at 12 Weeks
By the end of the first trimester, the formation of all major organ systems is
complete. Fingers and toes are fully formed, and the sex of the fetus can
be determined visually.
A Human Fetus at 4½ Months
At this midway point between conception and birth, the fetus is

covered with fine, downy hair called lanugo.
Maternal Perception of First Fetal Movements by
Week of Gestation
About 75% of mothers report feeling movements of the baby by about

20 weeks of gestation, with the 20th week being the most common
week that fetal movements are first reported.
3.4 Environmental Influences on
Prenatal Development
How Does Maternal Nutrition Affect Prenatal
Development?
• Malnutrition in mother (especially last trimester)
− Linked to low birth weight, prematurity, stunted growth, retardation of brain
development, cognitive deficiencies, behavioral problems, cardiovascular
disease
− Effects of fetal malnutrition can sometimes be overcome by supportive
caregiving environment
• Maternal obesity
− Linked to higher risk of stillbirth
− Increases risk of neural tube defects
What Should a Pregnant Woman Eat?
• Nutrients
− Protein
− Vitamins A, B, C, D, and E
− Iron; the trace minerals zinc and cobalt; folic acid
− Calcium
− Calories
• Most women who eat a well-rounded diet do not need supplements, but
most doctors recommend them to be safe
How Much Weight Should a Pregnant Woman
Gain?
• Mothers who are too slim risk preterm deliveries and low-birth-weight
babies
• Maternal obesity is linked to a higher risk of stillbirth
• Amount of recommended weight gain depends on prepregnancy weight
− BMI below 18.5—gain 28–40 pounds
− Normal weight—gain 25–35 pounds
− BMI between 25 and 29.9—gain 15–25 pounds
− BMI over 30—gain 11–20 pounds
What Are Teratogens? Does It Matter When,
During Pregnancy, a Woman Is Exposed to Them?
• Teratogens: environmental agents that can harm embryo/fetus
− Drugs ingested by mother
− Substances the mother’s body produces, like Rh-positive antibodies
− Heavy metals, such as lead and mercury
− Excessive hormones
− Radiation
− Pathogens, like bacteria and viruses
Critical Periods in Prenatal Development
Major structural abnormalities are most likely to occur when teratogens strike during the
embryonic period, which lasts roughly from the third through the eighth weeks of pregnancy.
Source: National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism.
Sexually Transmitted Infections (1 of 2)
• Syphilis
− Can cause miscarriage, stillbirth, or congenital syphilis
− Can be diagnosed by routine blood tests early in pregnancy
− Baby probably will not contract syphilis if infected mother is treated before
4th month of pregnancy
− If infected mother is not treated:
 Baby has 40–70% chance of being infected in utero or developing congenital
syphilis
Sexually Transmitted Infections (2 of 2)
• Human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome

(HIV/AIDS)
− Disables body’s immune system
− Lethal unless treated
− Transmitted through:
 Sex, blood transfusions, sharing needles, childbirth, breastfeeding
− Babies more likely infected during childbirth than through placenta
− Antiretroviral drug treatments decrease viral load in bloodstream
 Make mother–infant transmission highly unlikely
Other Prenatal Risks
• Influenza (the flu)

− Respiratory infection that may be related to fetal brain abnormalities,
autism spectrum disorder, and schizophrenia
• Rubella (German measles)
− Viral infection; may cause birth defects
• Pre-eclampsia (toxemia)
− May cause premature or undersized babies
− A cause of pregnancy-related maternal death
• Rh incompatibility
− Transfer of maternal antibodies that may cause brain damage or death
What Are the Effects of Drugs Taken by the
Mother on Prenatal Development? (1 of 5)
• Accutane
− Prescribed for difficult cases of acne
− Linked to numerous abnormalities during first trimester
• Thalidomide
− Missing or stunted limbs
• Antibiotics
− Tetracycline may lead to yellowed teeth and bone abnormalities
• Hormones
− Progestin can masculinize external sex organs of female embryo
− Diethylstilbestrol (DES) can cause cervical and testicular cancer
• Vitamins
− High doses of vitamins A and D are associated with central nervous system
damage, small head size, and heart defects
• Heroin and methadone
− Maternal addiction linked to low birth weight, prematurity, and toxemia
− Baby may be born addicted
• Marijuana (Cannabis)
− Risk of low birth weight, immature development of nervous system
− Predisposes offspring to dependence on opiates, even in adulthood
• Cocaine
− Maternal cocaine use raises risks of stillbirth, low birth weight, birth defects
− In utero exposure results in problems throughout childhood
• Alcohol
− Alcohol passes through placenta; poses risks for death of fetus and
neonate, malformations, growth deficiencies
− Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs)
 Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
 Physical and psychological defects
 Fetal alcohol effect (FAE)
• Caffeine
− Inconsistent findings, but some studies show increased risk of miscarriage
and low birth weight
• Cigarettes
− Nicotine and carbon monoxide pass through the placenta
 Nicotine stimulates fetus
 Carbon monoxide is toxic and decreases oxygen to fetus
• Cigarettes
− More likely to deliver smaller babies
− Babies more likely to be stillborn or die soon after birth
− Long-term effects
 Short attention spans, hyperactivity, lower cognitive scores, poor grades
− Men who smoke are more likely to produce abnormal sperm
What Are the Effects of Environmental Hazards
During Pregnancy?
• Heavy metals (lead, mercury, cadmium, selenium, zinc)
− Threaten baby’s cognitive development
• Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
− Connected with smaller, less responsive babies
− Babies more likely to develop cognitive deficits
• Radiation
− Can cause defects in organs (including eyes), central nervous system,
skeleton
− Increased risk of intellectual disabilities
Self-Assessment
• Which parts of this chapter did you find most challenging, and thus need
to review?
• What are some things you learned from this chapter that you had not
been aware of before?
• What are some ways that you could apply the information in this chapter
in your own life, such as in your job or your family?
Summary
Now that the lesson has ended, you should have learned how to:
• Describe the events of the germinal stage of prenatal development,
focusing on source of nourishment and implantation.
• Describe the events of the embryonic stage of prenatal development,
focusing on development of the major organ systems, sexual
differentiation, the amniotic sac, and the placenta.
• Describe the events of the fetal stage of prenatal development.
• Describe environmental influences on the embryo and fetus, focusing on
maternal nutrition, teratogens, critical periods of vulnerability, drugs
taken by the mother, and parental smoking.

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Childhood and

By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

• Period from conception to implantation (approximately 2 weeks)

• Prior to implantation, dividing cells are nourished by the yolk of the

• Begins with implantation (third week) and continues through week 8

• Ectoderm (outer layer of embryonic disk) develops into nervous

• Head and blood vessels begin to form (3rd week)

• Acts as a filter between the bloodstream of the mother and the

• Third month through birth

• End of second trimester

• End of third trimester

• First movements begin about 4th or 5th month

At this midway point between conception and birth, the fetus is

About 75% of mothers report feeling movements of the baby by about

• Human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome

• Influenza (the flu)

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