Control Charts for Variables

Control Charts for Variables

• In this chapter we look at the details of control charts for variables—

quality characteristics that are measurable on a numerical scale.

• Examples of variables include length, thickness, diameter, breaking

strength, temperature, acidity, viscosity, order-processing time, time to
market a new product, and waiting time for service.

• The mean gives an indication of the central tendency of a process, and the
variability provides an idea of the process dispersion. Therefore, we need
information about both of these statistics to keep a process in control.
 CONTROL CHARTS FOR THE MEAN AND RANGE
• Development of the Charts:
• Step 1: Using a pre-selected sampling scheme and sample size, record on
the appropriate forms the measurements of the quality characteristic
selected.
• Step 2: For each sample, calculate the sample mean and range using the
following formulas:

•
• where Xi represents the ith observation, n is the sample size, Xmax is the
largest observation, and Xmin is the smallest observation.
• Step 3: Obtain and draw the centerline and the trial control limits for each
chart. For the X̅-chart, the centerline X̿ is given by

• where g represents the number of samples.

• For the R-chart, the centerline R is found from

• Conceptually, the 3σ control limits for the X̅-chart are

• When sampling from a population that is normally distributed, the
distribution of the statistic W =R/σ (known as the relative range) is
dependent on the sample size n. The mean of W is represented by d2 and is
tabulated in Appendix A-7.
• Thus, an estimate of the process standard deviation is

• The control limits for an X̅-chart are therefore estimated as:

• where A2 =ˆ 3/ √n d2 and is tabulated in Appendix A-7.

• The control limits for the R-chart are conceptually given by,

• Since R= σW, we have σR= σσw. In Appendix A-7, σw is tabulated as d3.

• Now,
• The control limits for the R-chart are estimated as

• Where,

These equations are the working equation for calculating the control limits for the R-chart.
Values of D4 and D3 are tabulated in Appendix A-7.
• Step 4: Plot the values of the range on the control chart for range, with the
centerline and the control limits drawn. Determine whether the points are in
statistical control.

• If not, investigate the special causes associated with the out-of-control points
and take appropriate remedial action to eliminate special causes. Typically,
only some of the rules are used simultaneously. The most commonly used
criterion for determining an out-of-control situation is the presence of a point
outside the control limits.
• An R-chart is usually analyzed before an X-chart to determine out-of-control
situations.
• An Rchart reflects process variability, which should be brought into control
first. The control limits for an X-chart involve the process variability and
hence R. Therefore, if an R-chart shows an out-of-control situation, the limits
on the X-chart may not be meaningful.
• Step 5:
• Delete the out-of-control point(s) for which remedial actions have been
taken to remove special causes (in this case, sample 12) and use the
remaining samples (here they are samples 1–11 and 13–15) to determine the
revised centerline and control limits for the X- and R-charts.

• These limits are known as the revised control limits. The cycle of
obtaining information, determining the trial limits, finding out-of-control
points, identifying and correcting special causes, and determining revised
control limits then continues.

• The revised control limits will serve as trial control limits for the immediate
future until the limits are revised again. This ongoing process is a critical
component of continuous improvement.
• Step 6:
• Implement the control charts. The X- and R-charts should be implemented
for future observations using the revised centerline and control limits.
• The charts should be displayed in a conspicuous place where they will be
visible to operators, supervisors, and managers.
• Statistical process control will be effective only if everyone is committed
to it—from the operator to the chief executive officer.
• Example 1. Consider a process by which coils are manufactured. Samples of size 5 are
randomly selected from the process, and the resistance values (in ohms) of the coils are
measured. The data values are given in Table below, as are the sample mean X̅ and the
range R. Plot X̅ and R chart.
• First, the sum of the ranges is found and then the centerline R. We have
• ….

• For a sample of size 5, Appendix A-7 gives D4= 2.114 and D3= 0. The trial
control limits for the R-chart are calculated as follows

• The centerline on the X-chart is obtained as follows:

• Appendix A-7, for n = 5, gives A2 = 0.577. Hence, the trial control limits on
the X-charts are
• Observe that sample 3 is above the upper control limit on the R-chart and
samples 22 and 23 are below and above the X-chart control limit, respectively.

• When the special causes for these three samples were investigated, operators
found that the large value for the range in sample 3 was due to the quality of
raw materials and components purchased from a new vendor.

• Management decided to require the new vendor to provide documentation

showing that adequate control measures are being implemented at the vendor’s
plant and that subsequent deliveries of raw materials and components will
conform to standards.

• When the special causes for samples 22 and 23 were examined, operators
found that the oven temperature was too high for sample 22 and the wrong die
was used for sample 23. Remedial actions were taken to rectify these situations.
• With samples 3, 22, and 23 deleted, the revised centerline on the R-chart is

• The revised control limits on the R-chart are

• The revised centerline on the X-chart is

• The revised control limits on the X-chart are

 CONTROL CHARTS FOR ATTRIBUTES
• CHART FOR PROPORTION NON CONFORMING: p-CHART
• A chart for the proportion of nonconforming items (p-chart) is based on a binomial
distribution.
• For a given sample, the proportion nonconforming is defined as

• where x is the number of nonconforming items in the sample and n represents the
sample size.
• The average of the individual sample proportion nonconforming is used as the
centerline (CLp). That is,

• where g represents the number of samples.

• the control limits are given by
• Standard Specified

• If the target value of the proportion of nonconforming items is known or

specified, the centerline is selected as that target value. In other words, the
centerline is given by

• where p0 represents the standard or target value. The control limits in this case
are also based on the target value. Thus,

If the lower control limit for p turns out to be negative for equations lower control limit
is simply counted as zero because the smallest possible value of the proportion
nonconforming is zero.
Q1. Twenty-five samples of size 50 are chosen from a plastic-injection molding machine producing
small containers. The number of nonconforming containers for each sample is shown in Table
below.
• This is the centerline of the p-chart. Next, the trial control limits

Since the calculated value of the lower control limit is negative, it is

converted to zero
• Remedial action is taken to eliminate this special cause, sample 18 is
deleted, and the revised centerline and control limits are then found:

• The remaining samples are now in control.

• Ques. Management has decided to set a standard of 3% for the proportion of
nonconforming test tubes produced in a plant. Data collected from 20 samples of
size 100 are shown in Table below , as is the proportion of nonconforming test tubes
for each sample. Plot pchart.
Ans; The centerline and control limits, based on the specified standard, are
found to be
 CHART FOR NUMBER OF NONCONFORMING ITEMS: np-CHART

• As an alternative to calculating the proportion nonconforming, we can

count the number of nonconforming items in samples and use the count as
the basis for the control chart.
• Operating personnel sometimes find it easier to relate to the number
nonconforming than to the proportion nonconforming
• The number of nonconforming items in a sample is assumed to be given by
a binomial distribution.
• The same principles apply to number-nonconforming charts also, and
constructing an np-chart is similar to constructing a p-chart.
• There is one drawback to the np-chart:If the sample size changes, the
centerline and control limits change as well. Making inferences in such
circumstances is difficult. Thus, an np-chart should not be used when the
sample size varies.
• The centerline for an np-chart is given by:

• where xi represents the number nonconforming for the ith sample, g is the
number of samples, n is the sample size, and p̅ is the sample average
proportion nonconforming.
• Since the number of nonconforming items is n times the proportion
nonconforming, the average and standard deviation of the number
nonconforming are n times the corresponding value for the proportion
nonconforming.
• Thus, the standard deviation of the number nonconforming is
• The control limits for an np-chart are

• If the lower control limit calculation yields a negative value, it is

converted to zero.
• Ques1. Data for the number of dissatisfied customers in a department store
observed for 25 samples of size 300 are shown in Table below . Construct
an np-chart for the number of dissatisfied customers.
• Ans1. The centerline for the np-chart is

• The control limits are

 np chart

• This np-chart is shown in Figure. Note that sample 12 plots above the upper control limit and so
indicates an out-of-control state.
• Special causes should be investigated, and after remedial actions have been taken, limits are
revised by deleting sample 12.
• Standard Given
• Let’s suppose that a specified standard for the number of nonconforming
items is np0.
• The centerline and control limits are given by
These limits should be used for future observations.
 CHART FOR NUMBER OF NONCONFORMITIES: c-CHART

• A nonconformity is defined as a quality characteristic that does not meet

some specification.
• A nonconforming item has one or more nonconformities that make it
nonfunctional.
• The p- and np-charts deal with nonconforming items. A c-chart is used to
track the total number of non conformities in samples of constant size.
• The average number of nonconformities per sample unit is found from the
sample observations and is denoted by c̅.
• The centerline and control limits are

If the lower control limit is found to be less than zero, it is

converted to zero
• Standard Given:
• Let the specified goal for the number of nonconformities per sample unit
be c0.
• The centerline and control limits are then calculated from
• Ques1. Samples of fabric from a textile mill, each 100 m2 , are selected, and
the number of occurrences of foreign matter is recorded. Data for 25
samples are shown in Table below. Construct a c-chart for the number of
nonconformities.
• Ans. The average number of nonconformities based on the sample
information is found as follows. The centerline is given by

• The control limits are given by

• For sample 9, the number of nonconformities is 16, which exceeds the
upper control limit of 15.809. Assuming remedial action has been taken for
the special causes, the centerline and control limits are revised as follows
(sample 9 is deleted):

• After this revision, the remaining sample points are found to be within the
limits.