Artificial Intelligence Lecture 5

Artificial Intelligence
3. Depth-first search
 Expand deepest unexpanded node
 Implementation:
 fringe = LIFO queue, i.e., put successors at front
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Depth-first search
 Implementation:
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Depth-first search
 Implementation:
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Depth-first search
 Implementation:
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Depth-first search
 Implementation:
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Depth-first search
 Implementation:
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Depth-first search
 Implementation:
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Depth-first search
 Implementation:
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Depth-first search
 Implementation:
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Depth-first search
 Implementation:
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Depth-first search
 Implementation:
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Depth-first search
 Implementation:
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Properties of depth-first search
 Complete? No: fails in infinite-depth spaces, spaces
with loops
 complete in finite spaces
 Time? O(bm): terrible if m is much larger than d
 Space? O(bm)
 Optimal? No

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DFS Issue
 The drawback of DFS is that It can make a wrong
choice and get stuck going down a very long path
when a different choice would lead to a solution near
the root of the search tree.
Depth-First Search (DFS)
generalSearch(problem, stack)
S
# of nodes tested: 0, expanded: 0 start
expnd. node Frontier
{S} 5 2 4
A B C
9 4 6 2
6 G 1
D E goal F
H 16
S
{S} 5 2 4
S not goal {A,B,C}
A B C
9 4 6 2
6 G 1
D E goal F
H 17
S
{S} 5 2 4
S {A,B,C}
A B C
A not goal {D,E,B,C}
9 4 6 2
6 G 1
D E goal F
H 18
S
{S} 5 2 4
S {A,B,C}
A B C
A {D,E,B,C}
D not goal {H,E,B,C}
9 4 6 2
6 G 1
D E goal F
H 19
S
{S} 5 2 4
S {A,B,C}
A B C
A {D,E,B,C}
D {H,E,B,C}
9 4 6 2
H not goal {E,B,C}
6 G 1
D E goal F
H 20
S
{S} 5 2 4
S {A,B,C}
A B C
A {D,E,B,C}
D {H,E,B,C}
9 4 6 2
H {E,B,C}
6 G 1
E not goal {G,B,C} D E goal F
H 21
S
{S} 5 2 4
S {A,B,C}
A B C
A {D,E,B,C}
D {H,E,B,C}
9 4 6 2
H {E,B,C}
6 G 1
E {G,B,C} D E goal F
G goal {B,C} no expand
7
H 22
S
{S} 5 2 4
S {A,B,C}
A B C
A {D,E,B,C}
D {H,E,B,C}
9 4 6 2
H {E,B,C}
6 G 1
E {G,B,C} D E goal F
G {B,C}
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path: S,A,E,G
H cost: 15 23
4. Depth-limited search
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Iterative-Deepening Search (IDS)
 IDS is a general strategy often used with depth first
search, that finds the best depth limit.
 Gradually increases the limit, first 0, then 1, then 2
and so on until a goal is found.
 This occurs when the depth limit reaches d, the depth
of shallowest goal node.
 IDS combines benefits of both DFS and BFS.
 Like depth-first search, its memory requirements are

very modest: O(bd) to be precise.
 Like breadth-first search, it is complete when the

branching factor is finite and optimal when the path
cost is a nondecreasing function of the depth of the
node.
 In general, iterative deepening is the preferred
uninformed search method when there is a large
search space and the depth of the solution is not
known.
deepeningSearch(problem)
S
depth: 1, # of nodes tested: 1, expanded: 1 start
{S} 5 2 4
S not goal {A,B,C}
A B C
9 4 6 2
6 G 1
D E goal F
H 28
S
{S} 5 2 4
S {A,B,C}
A not goal {B,C} no expand A B C
9 4 6 2
6 G 1
D E goal F
H 29
S
{S} 5 2 4
S {A,B,C}
A {B,C} A B C
B not goal {C} no expand
9 4 6 2
6 G 1
D E goal F
H 30
S
{S} 5 2 4
S {A,B,C}
A {B,C} A B C
B {C}
C not goal { } no expand-FAIL 9 4 6 2
6 G 1
D E goal F
H 31
S
{S} 5 2 4
S {A,B,C}
A {B,C} A B C
B {C}
9 4 6 2
C {}
S no test {A,B,C} 6 G 1
D E goal F
H 32
S
{S} 5 2 4
S {A,B,C}
A {B,C} A B C
B {C}
9 4 6 2
C {}
S {A,B,C} 6 G 1
D E goal F
A no test {D,E,B,C}
7
H 33
S
{S} 5 2 4
S {A,B,C}
A {B,C} A B C
B {C}
9 4 6 2
C {}
S {A,B,C} 6 G 1
D E goal F
A {D,E,B,C}
D not goal {E,B,C} no expand 7
H 34
S
{S} 5 2 4
S {A,B,C}
A {B,C} A B C
B {C}
9 4 6 2
C {}
S {A,B,C} 6 G 1
D E goal F
A {D,E,B,C}
D {E,B,C} 7
E not goal {B,C} no expand
H 35
S
{S} 5 2 4
S {A,B,C}
A {B,C} A B C
B {C}
9 4 6 2
C {}
S {A,B,C} 6 G 1
D E goal F
A {D,E,B,C}
D {E,B,C} 7
E {B,C}
B no test {G,C} H 36
S
{S} 5 2 4
S {A,B,C}
A {B,C} A B C
B {C}
9 4 6 2
C {}
S {A,B,C} 6 G 1
D E goal F
A {D,E,B,C}
D {E,B,C} 7
E {B,C}
B {G,C} H 37
G goal {C} no expand
S
{S} 5 2 4
S {A,B,C}
A {B,C} A B C
B {C}
C {} 9 4 6 2
S {A,B,C} 6 G 1
D E goal F
A {D,E,B,C}
D {E,B,C} 7
E {B,C} path: S,B,G
B {G,C} H cost: 8 38
G {C}
Properties of iterative deepening search
 Complete? Yes
 Time? (d+1)b0 + d b1 + (d-1)b2 + … + bd = O(bd)
 Space? O(bd)
 Optimal? Yes, if step cost = 1
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5. Bidirectional search
 Run two simultaneous searches
 One forwards, from the initial state
 Other backward from the goal.
 Stops when the two searches meet in the middle
 Breadth First Search is applied at both sides of
searches
Bidirectional search
 Finds shortest path from initial state to goal
 Reduce the search time by searching forward from

the start and backward from the goal simultaneously
Bidirectional Search
S
Forward
A D Backwards
B D A E
C E E B B F
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D F B F C E A C G
14 17 15 15 13
G C G F
19 19 17 G 25
 Complete : Yes
 Bidirectional search is complete if BFS is used in both
searches.
 Optimality : Yes
 It is optimal if BFS is used for search and paths have
uniform cost.
 Time and Space Complexity :

 O(bd/2)
Comparing uninformed search strategies

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Artificial Intelligence Lecture 5

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Artificial Intelligence

 Like depth-first search, its memory requirements are

 Like breadth-first search, it is complete when the

 Time? (d+1)b0 + d b1 + (d-1)b2 + … + bd = O(bd)

 Optimal? Yes, if step cost = 1

 Reduce the search time by searching forward from

 Time and Space Complexity :

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