Epistemology: Mostafa Kamal Mokhtar Faculty of Social Science and Humanities, Ukm Bangi

epistemology
MOSTAFA KAMAL MOKHTAR

FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES, UKM BANGI
01/05/2022 MOSTAFAKAMALMOKHTAR@GMAIL.COM 1
Epistemology
The term "epistemology" is based on the
Greek words "ἐπιστήμη or episteme"
(knowledge) and "λόγος or logos"
(account/explanation);
A branch of philosophy that studies
knowledge, a theory of knowledge.
Epistemology: theory of knowledge
THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE, ALSO CALLED “EPISTEMOLOGY” IS THE
PHILOSOPHICAL DISCIPLINE THAT ATTEMPTS TO:
◦ (1) DEFINE KNOWLEDGE

◦ (2) DETERMINE THE SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE – AND PROPOSE THEORIES AS
TO HOW SUCH KNOWLEDGE IS POSSIBLE
◦ (3) SPECIFY A CRITERION OF KNOWLEDGE
◦ (4) DETERMINE THE LIMITS OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE
◦ (5) SOLVE VARIOUS PROBLEMS AND PARADOXES ABOUT KNOWLEDGE.
Focus on?
What is knowledge? What do we mean when we say that
we know something? The nature of knowledge!
How is knowledge acquired? Where do we get knowledge
from? How do we know if it's reliable? When are we
justified in saying we know something? The source and
mean of production of knowledge
What do people know? What are the limits of knowledge?
Are there any (knowledge) in the first place? Discussion on
the scope of knowledge (truth, belief, skeptic and
justification)
The nature of knowledge: Belief
(know) & Knowledge!
Sometimes, when people say that they believe in
something, what they mean is that they predict that
it will prove to be useful or successful in some sense
—perhaps someone might "believe in" his or her
favorite football team. This is not the kind of belief
usually dealt with in epistemology. The kind that is
dealt with as such is where "to believe something"
just means to think that it is true — e.g., to believe
that the sky is blue is to think that the proposition,
"The sky is blue," is true.
Belief & Knowledge
Knowledge is distinct from belief. If someone claims to believe
something, he or she is claiming that it is the truth. Of course, it
might turn out that he or she was mistaken, and that what was
thought to be true was actually false. This is not the case with
knowledge.
For example, suppose that Jeff thinks that a particular bridge is safe,
and attempts to cross it; unfortunately, the bridge collapses under
his weight. We might say that Jeff believed that the bridge was safe,
but that his belief was mistaken. We would not accurately say that he
knew that the bridge was safe, because plainly it was not. For
something to count as knowledge, it must be true.
Knowledge!
In Plato's dialogue Theaetetus, Socrates
considers that knowledge is justified true belief,
in order to know that a given proposition is
true, one must not only believe the relevant
true proposition, but one must also have a good
reason for doing so.
The nature of knowledge
A popular classical account held that knowledge is
justified true belief (JTB): we say we know x if, and
only if,
◦ x is true;
◦ We believe that x;
◦ We are justified in believing that x.
Example of nature of Knowledge
Suppose we want to say that we know it's snowing outside.
According to this account of knowledge, to know that it's
snowing we must have:
◦ It's true that it's snowing outside;
◦ We need to believe that it's snowing;
◦ We're justified in believing that it's snowing, because we
can see the snow falling and children are praying that
school will be cancelled.
What are the Gettier problems?
The Gettier problem, in the field of epistemology, is a

landmark philosophical problem with our understanding of
knowledge. Attributed to American philosopher Edmund
Gettier, Gettier-type counterexamples (called "Gettier-
cases") challenged the long-held justified true belief (or
JTB) account of knowledge.
Belief-truth-knowledge!
knowing that & knowing how
Epistemology in general, the kind of knowledge
usually discussed is propositional knowledge, also
known as "knowledge-that" as opposed to "know-
how".
For example: in mathematics, it is knowing that 2 + 2
= 4, but there is also knowing how to add two
numbers. Or, one knows how to ride a bicycle and
one knows that a bicycle has two wheels.
Epistemology: Source (Origin) of
Knowledge
Epistemology
Empiricism Rationalism Skepticism Revelation
Positivism
(science)
Logical
positivism
Rationalism
Reliance on reason {Lat. ratio} as the only reliable source of
human knowledge. In the most general application,
rationalism offers a naturalistic alternative to appeals to
religious accounts of human nature and conduct. More
specifically, rationalism is the epistemological theory that
significant knowledge of the world can best be achieved by
a priori means; it therefore stands in contrast to empiricism.
Prominent rationalists of the modern period include
Descartes, Spinoza, and Leibniz.
Source (Origin) of knowledge: Rationalism
Rationalism believes that knowledge comes from
reason (innate idea), or the act of reasoning.
Réné Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, G. W. Leibniz, and
Blaise Pascal seek to retain the belief in the existence
of innate (a priori) ideas together with an acceptance
of the values of data and ideas derived from
experience (a posteriori).
Example: number, shape, ideas.
Rationalism
we truly know only that of which we are certain. Since sense
experience cannot guarantee certainty, reason alone must be
the means for getting knowledge
Real knowledge about ourselves and the world is a
priori (prior to and independent of experience).
“Knowledge” gained from sense experience (a posteriori) is
guaranteed only by appeal to reason
Example: mirage (an illusion of eye)
Religion & Rationalism
In religion, rationalism is the view that recognizes as true
only that content of faith that can be made to appeal to
reason. In the 18th cent. rationalism produced a religion of
its own called deism (freethinker).
Deists hold that the course of nature sufficiently
demonstrates the existence of God. For them formal
religion was superfluous, and they scorned as spurious
claims of supernatural revelation.
Empiricism
Reliance on experience as the source of ideas and
knowledge. More specifically, empiricism is the
epistemological theory that genuine information about the
world must be acquired by a posteriori means, so that
nothing can be thought without first being sensed.
Prominent modern empiricists include Bacon, Locke,
Berkeley, Hume, and Mill. In the twentieth century,
empiricism principles were extended and applied by the
pragmatists and the logical positivists.
Source (Origin) of knowledge: Empiricism
Philosophical doctrine that all knowledge is derived from experience.
For most empiricists, experience includes inner experience—
reflection upon the mind and its operations—as well as sense
perception.
According to the empiricist, as expounded by John Locke, David
Hume, and John Stuart Mill, which denied the existence of innate
ideas altogether, all ideas are derived from experience; therefore,
knowledge of the physical world can be nothing more than a
generalization from particular instances and can never reach more
than a high degree of probability.
rational vs. empirical
How do I know?
Source of knowledge: Skepticism
Some skeptics take this "alas (sad
expression), it doesn't seem that it can be
done" attitude, while others are quite sure
that knowledge is impossible. Generally
speaking, fallibilism (weakness) can lead to
skepticism
Skepticism!
From Greek [to reflect], philosophic position holding that the
possibility of knowledge is limited either because of the limitations
of the mind or because of the inaccessibility of its object. It is more
loosely used to denote any questioning attitude
Technically, the limitations of knowledge; a method of obtaining
knowledge through systematic doubt and continual testing; the
arbitrariness, relativity, or subjectivity of moral values; a method of
intellectual caution and suspended judgment; a lack of confidence in
positive motives for human conduct or positive outcomes for human
enterprises, that is, cynicism and pessimism (Keeton, 1962).
Skepticism
Belief that some or all human knowledge is impossible.
Since even our best methods for learning about the world
sometimes fall short of perfect certainty, skeptics argue, it
is better to suspend belief than to rely on the dubitable
products of reason. Classical skeptics include Pyrrho and
Sextus Empiricus. In the modern era, Montaigne, Bayle, and
Hume all advocated some form of skeptical philosophy.
Fallibilism is a more moderate response to the lack of
certainty
History of Skepticism
The first important skeptical view was held by Democritus, who saw sense
perception as no certain guide to objective reality. The Sophists were the
earliest group of skeptics. Protagoras taught the relativity of knowledge, and
Gorgias held that either nothing could be known, or if anything were known, it
could not be communicated. Pyrrho, regarded as the father of skepticism, later
held a similarly extreme position, seeing reality as inaccessible. Arcesilaus
taught that certitude is impossible and only probable knowledge is attainable
In the Renaissance, For René Descartes skepticism was a methodology that
allowed him to arrive at certain incontrovertible truths. David Hume, a leading
modern skeptic, challenged established assumptions about the self, substance,
and causality. The skeptical aspect of Immanuel Kant's philosophy is exemplified
by his agnosticism; his antinomies of reason demonstrate that certain problems
are insoluble by reason.
Skepticism is true!
The sentence in this box is false
Skeptics are people who deny that any knowledge, or any knowledge within
certain domains, is possible. Radical skeptics may deny that even the most
obvious claims can be known to be true.
Positivism
Positivism, philosophical doctrine that denies any validity to
speculation or metaphysics. Sometimes associated with empiricism,
positivism maintains that metaphysical questions are unanswerable
and that the only knowledge is scientific knowledge.
The basic tenets of positivism are contained in an implicit form in the
works of Francis Bacon, George Berkeley, and David Hume, but the
term is specifically applied to the system of Auguste Comte, who
developed the coherent doctrine. In addition to being a dominant
theme of 19th-century philosophy, positivism has greatly influenced
various trends of contemporary thought. Logical positivism is often
considered a direct outgrowth of 19th-century positivism.
Positivism
Positivism is a philosophy that states that the only
authentic knowledge is scientific knowledge, and
that such knowledge can only come from positive
affirmation of theories through strict scientific
method. It was developed by Auguste Comte (widely
regarded as the first true sociologist) in the middle of
the 19th century.
Positivism: features
The belief that science rests on specific results that are
dissociated from the personality and social position of the
investigator;
The belief that science contains theories or research
traditions that are largely commensurable;
The belief that science sometimes incorporates new ideas
that are discontinuous from old ones;
The belief that science involves the idea of the unity of
science, that there is, underlying the various scientific
disciplines, basically one science about one real world.
Positivism: features
A focus on science as a product, a linguistic or numerical set of
statements;
A concern with axiomatization, that is, with demonstrating the logical
structure and coherence of these statements;
An insistence on at least some of these statements being testable, that is
amenable to being verified, confirmed, or falsified by the empirical
observation of reality; statements that would, by their nature, be
regarded as untestable included the teleological; (Thus positivism rejects
much of classical metaphysics.)
The belief that science is markedly cumulative; predominantly
transcultural
Scientist Ideology
The positivist view is sometimes referred to as a scientist ideology, and is often
shared by technocrats who believe in the necessity of progress through
scientific progress, and by naturalists, who argue that any method for gaining
knowledge should be limited to natural, physical, and material approaches. As
an approach to the philosophy of science deriving from Enlightenment thinkers
like Pierre-Simon Laplace (and many others), positivism was first systematically
theorized by Comte, who saw the scientific method as replacing metaphysics in
the history of thought, and who observed the circular dependence of theory and
observation in science. Comte was thus one of the leading thinkers of the
social evolutionism thought.
Positivism is the most evolved stage of society in anthropological evolutionism,
the point where science and rational explanation for scientific phenomena
develops.
Logical Positivism
Twentieth-century philosophical movement that used a
strict principle of verifiability to reject as meaningless the
non-empirical statements of metaphysics, theology, and
ethics. Under the influence of Hume, Russell, and the early
Wittgenstein, the logical positivists regarded as meaningful
statements only reporting empirical observations, taken
together with the tautologies of logic and mathematics.
Prominent logical positivists included members of the
Vienna Circle and Ayer.
Revelation
Etymology
◦Middle English revelacioun, from Anglo-
French, from Late Latin revelation-,
revelatio, from Latin revelare to reveal
First Known Use: 14th century
Revelation
Transmission of knowledge from a god or gods to humans. In the Western
monotheistic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, revelation is the basis
of religious knowledge. Humans know God and his will because God has chosen
to reveal himself to them. He may communicate with his chosen servants
through dreams, visions, or physical manifestations and may inspire prophets
who relay his message to the people.
God will may also be translated directly into writing through the handing down
of divine law (e.g., the Ten Commandments) or scripture (e.g., the Bible and the
Qur'an). Other religions emphasize “cosmic” revelation, in which any and all
aspects of the world may reveal the nature of a single underlying divine power
(e.g., Brahman in the Vedas).
Practical application of Epistemology
Far from being purely academic, the study of epistemology
is useful for a great many applications. It is particularly
commonly employed in issues of law where proof of guilt or
innocence may be required, or when it must be determined
whether a person knew a particular fact before taking a
specific action (e.g., whether an action was premeditated).
Epistemological Theory
Theory of
knowledge
Empiricism Rationalism Skepticism
tabula rasa Inner idea doubt
experience reasoning
posteriori priori
Summary of Human knowledge
Area Rationalism Empiricism Revelation
Kind of information Priori (eternal) Posteriori (change); Revealed/disclosed by
Independent to senses dependent to senses God
Mind/reason/ Innate or build-in idea Tabula Rasa Created by God

aqal
Method of acquiring Intellectual intuition- Sensation - Human Revelations - self-truth
truth reasoning experience knowledge
Type of knowledge rational Trans-rational
Type of approach Believe that – an human prepositional @ Believe in - a event of

assertion God’s disclosure
The Value of Wisdom!
reference
Kessler, Gary E. Voices of Wisdom: A Multicultural Philosophy Reader. California: Wadsworth
Publishing Company (p.260-300)
Pojman, Louis P. Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings. California:
Wadsworth Publishing Company (p.31-152)
Philosophy Comix: http://members.aol.com/lshauser/phlcomix.html#history
http://www.oliverbenjamin.net/philo3.html
http://www.cartoonbank.com/
http://www.philosophypages.com/dy/r.htm#ratm
http://shrdocs.com/presentations/13493/index.html
https://www.slideshare.net/drpsdeb/epistemology-4532236
https://quizlet.com/85711562/gettier-problem-flash-cards/

Epistemology: Mostafa Kamal Mokhtar Faculty of Social Science and Humanities, Ukm Bangi

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Epistemology: Mostafa Kamal Mokhtar Faculty of Social Science and Humanities, Ukm Bangi

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

epistemology

MOSTAFA KAMAL MOKHTAR

◦ (1) DEFINE KNOWLEDGE

The Gettier problem, in the field of epistemology, is a

Empiricism Rationalism Skepticism Revelation

The sentence in this box is false

Empiricism Rationalism Skepticism

tabula rasa Inner idea doubt

Mind/reason/ Innate or build-in idea Tabula Rasa Created by God

Type of knowledge rational Trans-rational

Type of approach Believe that – an human prepositional @ Believe in - a event of

You might also like