FIELDS OF

CIVIL ENGINEERING
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING
 Basic Need and Civil Engineering
Human Needs Specific Nature of Needs Civil Engineering Technical Area

Breath Clean Air Environmental Engineering

Drink Safe Water Environmental Engineering

Sleep Livable Shelter Structural and Construction Engineering

Transportation and Construction

Move Around Ways to Travel
Engineering

Earthquake Mitigation Structural and Geotechnical Engineering

Water Resources and Environmental

Flood Mitigation
Engineering
Safe from Disaster
Wind Mitigation Structural Engineering

Fire Mitigation Structural Engineering

 Structural Engineering
Structural engineering is the technical specialty that deals with the
analysis and design of constructed structures.
A structure is always subjected to the many “loads” the environment
forces upon it. These loads include the omnipresent gravitational load of its own
weight (called the dead load), the weight of things moving about in or upon the
structure (the live load), and event-driven loads originated from the occurrence
of earthquakes, strong wind, or heavy snow.
Structural design aims at providing a structure with sufficient level of
resistance against these loads with minimum cost.
The structure is the collection of element within a construction that are
assumed, and designed, to support the loads applied to the structure and
transmit them safely to the foundations.
 Components of a Structure and its Members
Structures can have many forms; they may not even be visible to the casual observer. For example,
Figure shows the reinforced concrete frame for a multi-storey building under construction. The frame acts as
the ‘skeleton’ of the building and, like the skeleton of a human being, when the building is complete and clad
in brick, glass or stone, the skeleton will not be visible. Nevertheless, it is the skeleton that supports the
entire load: the outside cladding, the floors, services and so-forth being hung from or otherwise supported on
the from.
 Components of a Structure and its Members
The primary elements in a frame are those that most immediately support the applied loads. These are
generally the floor slabs. The function of the slabs is to transmit the loading from where it is applied to
those members that supports the slabs. This requires the slabs to transfer the loads in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of the loading. Normally, the applied loading acts vertically, because this is
the way gravity acts; the slabs have to transfer the load horizontally to supporting beams, walls or columns.
 Components of a Structure and its Members
The second form of member is a beam. A beam collects the load from one or more slabs and transmit it to
the members supporting the beam. This may be another beam, or a wall or column. Beams behave in the same
way as slabs but, because they concentrate the load from slabs, they tend to carry much higher load intensities.
A particular form of a beam is a truss. This is a beam made up of small individual units usually arranged to
form a triangulated structure.
 Components of a Structure and its Members
Columns collect the loads from beams and slabs and transmit them downward to the foundations. They
behave in a fundamentally different way from the beams and slabs in that they mainly transmit loads in a
direction parallel to the axis of the member.
Structural walls carry out the same function as columns, that is, they transmit loads downwards. In
tall building they also serve an important function in stiffening a building against lateral loads (i.e. wind).
Architecturally they serve to divide up a building into compartments and to provide an outer skin.
 Components of a Structure and its Members
Foundations take the loads from the columns and walls and transfer them to the
underlying soil or rock. Because the soil is normally much weaker than the material forming the
structure, the foundation generally has to spread the load over a sufficient area of the soil for the
stresses in the soil to be limited to levels that will not cause excessive settlements.
Components of a Structure and its Members
Hierarchy of Members in a Structure
 Structural Reliability
The many loads a structure must withstand during its life span are mostly of a “random” nature,
meaning it cannot be defined precisely with respect to its magnitude and time of occurrence. So are
the resistance provided by the size and material of structural components. Design in the face of
uncertainty requires the application of probability and statistics.
Structural reliability is the methodology applying these mathematical tools to the load-
resistance analysis in structural design. It is used in the development of design codes and
specifications that are followed by designers to provide acceptable levels of safety against all loads.
The principle aim of structural design is the assurance of satisfactory performance within the
constraints of economy. A primary complication toward achieving this in practice is imperfect
execution and the lack of complete information. The existence of uncertainties in structural
engineering has long been recognized and quantitatively accounted for through the use of safety
factors in design.
Reliability can be defined as the probabilistic measure of assurance of performance with
respect to some prescribed condition(s). A condition can refer to an ultimate limit state (such as
collapse) or serviceability limit state (such as excessive deflection and/or vibration).
 Earthquake Engineering
Disaster means occurrence of uncontrolled, painful and serious
conditions. There are various natural disasters like:
• Earthquakes Earthquakes, cyclone and fire needs special considerations in
building design and construction since they are more frequent,
• Volcanic eruptions widespread and more disastrous.

• Cyclones An earthquake is a sudden, rapid shaking of the earth surface

caused by the breaking and shifting of rocks beneath. During
• Fire earthquake, ground motion occurs in a random fashion in all directions
radiating from a point within earth crust, called epicenter. It causes
• Landslides vibrations of structures and induce inertia forces on them. As a result,
structure may collapse resulting into loss of property and lives.
• Tsunami Earthquakes do not kill people, vulnerable buildings do so. Hence
• Flood there is need of designing earthquake resistant buildings, especially in
the earthquake prone areas.
 Earthquake Engineering
Depending upon the possible causes, the earthquakes may be classified as:
1. Natural earthquake - natural earthquakes may be due to:
 active faults
 movement of tectonic plates or
 due to volcanic eruptions.
2. Earthquakes due to induced activities - These are caused by vibrations induced by atomic
explosions and collapse of ground due to faulty mining.
 Wind Engineering
TheA following care should
survey of engineering befortaken
literature in 150years
the past designing buildings
reveals in cyclone
many references to structural
failures caused
prone areas:by wind.
It is important to realize that a large percentage of building failures from wind have occurred
• Foundations should be deeper
during the buildings’ erection.
• R.C.C.
Strong windframed
caused bystructures are atotornado,
a hurricane, be preferred overcreates
or a storm load bearing
effects onstructures
structures that are
•
also time-varying
Sloping roofs and multi-directional. Strong wind around a structure may push against a surface
should be avoided.
while creating a partial vacuum behind another structural surface.
• Cantilever
Unlike projections
earthquakes, should
which occur be avoided.
infrequently, especially the damaging ones, strong wind in
some• areas
Roofoccurs frequently
and parapet walland so is be
should the properly
damage itanchored
incurs. Design
to theagainst
columnssuchandwind-related
walls.
effects is the realm of wind engineering. Here again, the design approach is to protect human lives
with•a reasonable
Height ofcost. the buildings should be restricted.
A• cyclone
Suitableiswind loadaccompanied
a storm should be considered
by high speedin the building
whistling and design.
howling winds. It brings
torrential rains. A cyclone storm develops over tropical ocean and blows at speed as high as 200–
240 • Openings
km/hour. in the wall
It is usually should by
accompanied be lightning,
less. thunder and continuous downpour of rain.
• Structure should not rest on loose soil.
 Fire Engineering
AInbuilding
the eventmay
of abe
firemade more firethe
in a building, resistant by:
high temperature created by the fire may cause the
building material to lose its strength and eventually fail under the weight of the building.
1. Using suitable materials - the fire resisting material is having the following
Fire engineering in the context of structural engineering deals with the effective
characters:
application of protective materials to the structural components such as steel beams and
columns• such
It should
thatnot disintegrate
sufficient timeunder the effect
is provided forofthe
heat
occupants to escape and the firefighters to
arrive.• It should not expand under heat so as to introduce unnecessary stresses in the building
The• research
The material
in should not catch fire provides
fire engineering easily data to be incorporated into design and
construction codesnot
• It should and specifications.
lose its strength when subjected to fire.
2. Taking precautions in building construction - a building may be made more
fire resistant by minimizing use of combustible materials, protecting steel by fire
resistant paints and providing stairs at suitable positions and protecting them from
fire.
3. By providing fire alarm systems and fire extinguishers - all important
buildings should be provided with fire alarm system. Alarm may be manual or
automatic. Automatic alarm senses the smoke and activate bells.
 Bridge Engineering
Bridges are important to everyone. But they are not seen or understood in the same way,
which is what makes their study so fascinating.
A bridge is a key element in a transportation system for three reasons:
• It likely controls the capacity.
• It is the highest cost per mile.
• If the bridge fails, the system fails.
If the width of a bridge is insufficient to carry the number of lanes required to handle the
traffic volume, the bridge will be a constriction to the traffic flow. If the strength of a bridge is
deficient and unable to carry heavy trucks, load limits will be posted and truck traffic will be
rerouted. The bridge controls both the volume and weight of the traffic carried.
Because a bridge is a key element in a transportation system, balance must be achieved
between handling future traffic volume and loads and the cost of a heavier and wider bridge
structure. Strength is always a foremost consideration but so should measures to prevent
deterioration. The designer of new bridges has control over these parameters and must make
wise decisions so that capacity and cost are in balance, and safety is not compromised.
 Bridge Engineering
Some structural engineers specialize in bridge design and construction. Bridge
design can be categorized according to material and bridge type. One unique feature of
bridge design is it is closely integrated with construction. From the bridge foundation to
the superstructure, the process of construction and erection often requires detailed
analysis by the design engineers and likely dictates the designers’ choice of bridge type.
• Stone Arch Bridge
• Wooden Bridges
• Metal Truss Bridges
• Metal Arch Bridges
• Suspension Bridges
• Reinforced Concrete Bridges
• Girder Bridges
 Building Engineering
Structural engineers often become building design specialists because building design is
more frequently in demand than bridge or dam designs, especially in urban centers. Building
engineers also design special buildings such as stadiums and large dome structures.
The following are the basic elements of a building:

1. Foundation 6. Floors
2. Plinth 7. Roofs
3. Walls and columns 8. Steps, stairs and lifts
4. Sills, lintels and chejjas 9. Finishing work
5. Doors and windows 10. Building services.
 Basic Requirements of a Building
The planning and construction of a building should be aimed at fulfilling the
following requirements:

• Strength and stability • Protection against termite attack

• Dimensional stability
• Resistance to dampness
• Resistance to fire
• Heat insulation
• Sound insulation
• Durability
• Security against burglary
• Lighting and ventilation
• Comforts and convenience
• Economy
 Forensic Engineering
Forensic Engineering refers to the study of causes of an engineering event,
usually a disaster or failure of some kind. In the context of structural
engineering, it refers to the investigation of a structural failure.
Activities associated with forensic engineering include determination if the
physical or technical causes of accidents or failures, preparation of reports, and
presentation of testimony or advisory opinions that assist in resolution of related
disputes.
In case of major disasters, often a team of experts are assembled to study the
cause of the disaster and to make recommendations to prevent future disasters.
Even when the cause of disaster is terrorism, forensic engineering would reveal
the weakness in design and provide guidance for future designs.
 Forensic Engineering
In examining the activities of the ASCE, one sees that the scope of civil
engineering investigations can be quite large, encompassing the following disciplines:

• Structures • Air transportation and aerospace

• Geotechnical works • Environmental facilities
• Highways • Hydraulics, irrigation, and drainage
installations
• Waterway, port, coastal, and ocean facilities
• Culverts and pipelines • Architectural technology
• Materials engineering

This chapter emphasizes investigations in two of these disciples – structures

and geotechnical works – although most of the principles apply to the other
disciplines as well.
 Forensic Engineering
Forensic engineers commonly are concerned with the engineering aspects of legal problems,
the activities of civil forensic engineer are much broader, addressing all issues of failures of
constructed facilities, legal or not. This is demonstrated by the following stated purposes of the
eight current committees and task committees of the ASCE/TCFE (ASCE 2000):

• Committee on Dissemination of Failure Information (CDFI)

• Committee on Practices to Reduce Failures
• Forensic Practices Committee
• Committee on Education
• Committee on Technology Implementation
• Publications Committee
• Task Committee on Avoiding Failures Caused by Computer Misuse
• Task Committee on Lift-Slab Construction