Chapter-6

Lec-6 Research Methodology

Outlines to be discussed…………..
• Understanding experimental research

• Internal validity

• External validity

• Ethical issues in experimental design research

The Scientific Method
involves a series of steps
that are used to investigate
a natural occurrence.
Experimental
Research
 Experimental Research
Experimental research is an attempt by the researcher to maintain
control over all factors that may affect the result of an experiment. In
doing this, the researcher attempts to determine or predict what may
occur.
 Experimental Design
Experimental design is a blueprint of the procedure that enables the
researcher to test his hypothesis by reaching valid conclusions about
relationships between independent and dependent variables.
Experimental Study Steps
• Problem/Question
• Observation/Research
• Formulate a Hypothesis
• Experiment
• Collect and Analyze Results
• Conclusion
• Communicate the Results
 Steps of the Experimental Study

1. Problem/Question: Develop a question or problem

that can be solved through experimentation.
Steps of the Experimental Study

2. Observation/Research: Make observations

and research your topic of interest.
 Steps of the Experimental Study

3. Formulate a Hypothesis: Predict a possible answer to

the problem or question.
Example: If soil temperatures rise, then plant growth will
increase.
 Steps of the Experimental Study
4. Experiment: Develop and follow a procedure.
Include a detailed materials list.
The outcome must be measurable (quantifiable).
 Steps of the Experimental Study

5. Collect and Analyze Results: Modify the procedure if

needed.
Confirm the results by retesting.
Include tables, graphs, and photographs.
 Steps of the Experimental Study
6. Conclusion: Include a statement that accepts or rejects
the hypothesis.
Make recommendations for further study and possible
improvements to the procedure.
 Steps of the Experimental Study

7. Communicate the Results: Be prepared to

present the project to an audience.
Expect questions from the audience.
 Problem/Question
John watches his grandmother bake bread. He ask his
grandmother what makes the bread rise.
She explains that yeast releases a gas as it feeds on
sugar.
John wonders if the amount of sugar used in the recipe
will affect the size of the bread loaf
 Observation/Research
John researches the areas of
baking and fermentation and
tries to come up with a way to
test his question.
He keeps all of his information on
this topic in a journal.
 Formulate a Hypothesis
After talking with his teacher
and conducting further
research, he comes up with
a hypothesis.
“If more sugar is added, then
the bread will rise higher.”
Hypothesis
• The hypothesis is an educated guess about the
relationship between the independent and dependent
variables.
 Independent Variable
• The independent, or manipulated variable, is a factor that’s intentionally
varied by the experimenter. (on x-axis)
• John is going to use 25g., 50g., 100g., 250g., 500g. of sugar in his experiment.
 Dependent Variable
• The dependent, or responding variable, is the factor that may change as a
result of changes made in the independent variable. (on Y-axis)
• In this case, it would be the size of the loaf of bread.
 Control Group
• In a scientific experiment, the control is the group that serves as the
standard of comparison.
• The control group may be a “no treatment" or an “experimenter selected”
group.
 Control Group
• The control group is exposed to the same conditions as the experimental
group, except for the variable being tested.
• All experiments should have a control group.
 Control Group
Because his grandmother always used 50g. of
sugar in her recipe, John is going to use that
amount in his control group.
 Constants
All other factors stay the
same so that any observed
changes in the bread can be
attributed to the variation in
the amount of sugar.
 Constants
They might include:
Other ingredients to the bread recipe, oven used, rise time, brand of
ingredients, cooking time, type of pan used, air temperature and
humidity where the bread was rising, oven temperature, age of
the yeast…
 Experiment
John writes out his procedure
for his experiment along with a
materials list in his journal. He
has both of these checked by
his teacher where she checks
for any safety concerns.
 Collect and Analyze Results
John comes up with a
table he can use to
record his data.
John gets all his materials
together and carries out
his experiment.
 Collect and Analyze Results
John examines his data
and notices that his
control worked the best
in this experiment, but
not significantly better
than 100g. of sugar.
 Conclusion
John rejects his
hypothesis, but decides
to re-test using sugar
amounts between 50g.
and 100g.
 Conclusion
John finds that 70g. of
sugar produces the
largest loaf.
His hypothesis is
accepted.
 Bart Simpson believes that mice exposed to microwaves will become extra strong
(maybe he’s been reading too much Radioactive Man). He decides to perform this
experiment by placing 10 mice in a microwave for 10 seconds (do not do this at
home, Bart is a misguided fictional character ). He compared these 10 mice to
another 10 mice that had not been exposed. His test consisted of a heavy block of
wood that blocked the mouse food. He found that 8 out of the 10 microwaved mice
were able to push the block away. 7 out of 10 non-microwaved mice were able to do
the same.
1.What was Bart’s hypothesis?
2.Identify the Control group.
3.Identify the independent and dependent variables
4.What might be some of the possible constants?
5.What should Bart’s conclusion be?
ANSWERS
1. Mice exposed to microwaves will be extra strong
2. The unexposed mice
3. Independent variable- microwaves
Dependent variable- strength
4. Same block of wood, same food, time of day, approx same size
mice, etc.
5. Microwave exposure does not significantly change the strength of
mice.
Validity
• Experiments are considered valid if:
• The results obtained are only due to the
manipulation of the independent variable
• Two conditions must be met
• Internal validity
• External Validity
 Internal Validity
Observed differences on the dependent variable are the direct result if the
researcher’s manipulation of the independent variable.
 Internal Validity Factors
• History
• Maturation
• Pre-testing
• Measuring instruments
• Statistical regression
• Differential selection
• Experimental mortality
• Interaction of factors
Internal Validity factors
 History
• The events occurring between the first and second measurements in
addition to the experimental variable which might affect the measurement.
 Maturation
• Physical/mental changes occurring in subjects over time.
• The process of maturing which takes place in the individual during the duration
of the experiment which is not a result of specific events but of simply growing
older, growing tired or similar changes.
 Pre-Testing
• The effect created on the second measurement
by having a measurement before the
experiment.
 Measuring Instruments
• Changes in instruments, calibration of
instruments, observers or scorers may cause
changes in the measurements.
 Statistical Regression
• Where groups are chosen because of extreme
scores of measurements, those scores tend to
move toward the mean with repeated
measurements even without an experimental
variable.
 Differential Selection
• Different individuals or groups have different
previous knowledge or ability which would affect
the final measurement if not taken into account.
 Experimental Mortality
• The loss of subjects from comparison groups could
greatly affect the comparisons because of unique
characteristics of those subjects. Groups to be
compared need to be the same as before the
experiment.
 Interaction of Factors
• Combinations of many of these factors may interact especially in multiple
group comparisons to produce erroneous measurements.
 External Validity
• Results of the experiment are generalizable to groups and
environments outside of the experiment;
• results of the study can be reconfirmed with other groups,
in other settings, and at other times (if the conditions are
similar to those present in the experiment).
 External Validity Factors
• Pre-testing
• Differential selection
• Experimental procedures
• Multiple treatment interference
 Pre-Testing
• Individuals who were pre-tested might be less or more sensitive to the
experimental variable or might have learned from the pre-test making them
unrepresentative of the population who had not been pre-tested.
 Differential Selection
• The selection of the subjects determines how the findings may be generalized.
Subjects selected from a small group or one with particular characteristics
would limit generalizability.
 Experimental Procedures
• The experimental procedures and arrangements have a certain amount of
effect on the subjects in the experimental settings.
 Multiple Treatment Interference

• If the subjects are exposed to more than one treatment, then the findings
could only be generalized to individuals exposed to the same treatments in the
same order of presentation.
Ethics in Experimental Research
 Ethics
• Ethics: principles for guiding decision making and reconciling conflicting values

• People may disagree on ‘ethics’ because it is based on people's personal value systems

• What one person considers to be good or right may be considered bad or wrong by
another person
Ethics
• Ethical issue
• Must make sure that research is done properly by you
• References
• Must be read and understood
• Data collection –
• Sample
• Number of data collected
• Source of data
• No plagiarism
 Ethics
• Autonomy:
• Free-choice, no pressure to participate,
• consideration of “at risk” groups or individuals persons
with diminished autonomy
• Beneficence:
• “do no harm,” ensure the well-being of participants
• Justice:
• fair distribution of risks and benefits of research
• subject recruitment, selection
• subject compensation
 Voluntary informed consent
• Before conducting any research using human participants, a participant’s
voluntary informed consent must first be obtained:
• Voluntary: the subject willingly agrees to participate in the study, and is
free to withdraw at any time without penalty
• Informed: the subject is aware of any risks (physical or psychological)
associated with participating
• Consent: the subject’s consent is unambiguous, e.g., a signed permission
form (no such things as “implied consent”)
 Debriefing participants
• Dehoaxing:
• undoing the cover story and revealing the true purpose of the
investigation
• Desensitizing:
• addressing any lingering psychological or emotional concerns
associated with participating in the investigation
• Explaining the benefits of participation to subjects
• Thanking subjects and providing for future contact if
necessary
Treating participants with respect and dignity

• Avoiding “isms” in research; sexism, racism, ethnocentrism, ageism, etc.