The cell

Niveditha S
Postgraduate student
Department of periodontology
CONTENTS
CONTENTS
Introduction
History
Cell theory
Types of cells
Parts of the cell
1. Cell membrane
2. Cytoplasm
3. Cell organelles
Cell junction
Different types of cells
Conclusion
References
INTRODUCTION
Cell – latin “small room”

The cell is the fundamental working unit of all

organisms.
 Group of cells functioning together- Tissue

 Group of tissues functioning together- Organ

 Group of organs functioning together-Organ System

 Group of organ systems functioning together-Organism

HISTORY
Robert Hook, an English
scientist, observed a thin
slice of cork under the
microscope in 1665, he
described small spaces
surrounded by wall and
named them cells.
 Later Robert Brown in
1833 discovered the
nucleus of the cell.
THE CELL THEORY
Melthias Scheiden(1838):
concluded that all plants are
composed of cells
Theordor Schwann(1839):
concluded that all animals are
composed of cells.
Rudolf Virchow (1855):
determined that cells come only
from other cells
The cell theory
All organisms are composed of one or more cells.

All the life functions of an organism occur within

cells.
All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
Modern cell theory
The cell has hereditary information (DNA) that is
passed on from cell to cell during reproduction.
 All cells have virtually the same chemical composition
and metabolic activities.
 All the cell's basic chemical and physiological
functions are carried out inside the cell itself.
cellular activity is dependent on the activities of
structures within the cell, such as the organelles, or
nucleus.
CLASSIFICATION
Prokaryotic cells
One celled organism
Do not have structures
surrounded by membranes
No nucleus
No membrane bound
organelles
Single strand of circular
“naked” DNA and contain
ribosomes
EUKARYOTIC CELLS
Most of the living
organisms contain a
nucleus which protects
DNA or chromosomes.

Much larger than

prokaryotic cells.
Cell membrane
It is generally referred as the plasma membrane.

They are generally about 7.5 nm (75 Å) thick.

Made up of lipids and proteins and is semipermeable.

The major lipids are phospholipids such as

phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine.

Contains numerous regulated ion channels and other

transport proteins that can change the amounts of

substances moving across it.
The shape of the phospholipid molecule reflects its

solubility properties.
 The head end phosphate relatively soluble in
water (polar, hydrophilic)
 The tails relatively insoluble (nonpolar,
hydrophobic).
 Hydrophilic ends of the molecules are exposed to

the aqueous environment that bathes the exterior

of the cells and the aqueous cytoplasm; the
hydrophobic ends meet in the water-poor interior
of the membrane
Many different proteins are embedded in the membrane.

They exist as separate globular units and many pass through

the membrane (integral proteins)

whereas others (peripheral proteins) stud the inside and

outside of the membrane.

The amount of protein varies significantly with the function

of the membrane but makes up on average 50% of the mass

of the membrane
 The uncharged, hydrophobic portions of the proteins are

usually located in the interior of the membrane, whereas the

charged, hydrophilic portions are located on the surfaces.

 Proteins held by glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchors

 The proteins in the membranes carry out many functions.

1. Cell adhesion molecules

2. Pumps
3. carriers
FUNCTIONS OF CELL MEMBRANE

 Maintain the shape of the cell.

 Control the passage of substances in and out of the cell.

a. Small molecules pass through passive channels

b. Large molecules enter by the process of endocytosis
 They bear receptors for hormones, enzyme etc

 High degree of specialization of cell membrane is seen

in certain cells (rods and cones).
TRANSPORTATION ACROSS CELL
MEMBRANES
 Exocytosis

 Endocytosis

 Diffusion

 Osmosis

 Facilitated diffusion

 Active transport
EXOCYTOSIS
Exocytosis transports molecules outside the cell via
fusion of a vesicle with the plasma membrane.
ENDOCYTOSIS
Endocytosis transports molecules in to the cell via
invagination of the plasma membrane to form a
vesicle.
DIFFUSION AND OSMOSIS
Diffusion is the random movement of molecules from
a higher concentration to a lower concentration

Osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules

Facilitated diffusion and active transport
 Facilitated diffusion is the transport
of molecules across the plasma
membrane from higher
concentration to lower
concentration via a protein carrier.

 Active transport is the movement of

molecules from a lower to higher
concentration using ATP as energy;
requires a protein carrier.
CYTOPLASM
 It is the fluid content of the cell which occurs between
the plasma membrane and the nuclear envelope.

 It contains various cell organelles which perform

different functions of the cell.

 Is comprised of:
 Cytosol(fluid portion of the cytoplasm)

 Organelles(cell “organs” or functional parts)

 Parts of cytoplasm
 Cytoplasm is made up of two zones namely ectoplasm and
endoplasm.

 Ectoplasm is the part of cytoplasm just beneath the cell

membrane consists network of microfilaments which
support the cell membrane.

 Endoplasm is like a fluid interposed between ectoplasm

and nucleus.
Functions of cytoplasm
Cytoplasm helps in exchange of material between cell
organelles.

It act as a store of vital chemicals such as amino acids,

glucose, vitamins, ions, etc.

It is the site of certain metabolic pathways such as

glycolysis.

Synthesis of fatty acids, nucleotides and some amino acids

also takes place in the cytoplasm.
Membranous cell organelles
Mitochondria
Power house of the cell.
Utilization of pyruvate
is possible only through
the mitochondria.
Larger organelle of the
cell.
A cell actively involved –
protein synthesis-
greater number of
mitochondria.
Mitochondrial structure
Bilayered – cell
organelle
Outer membrane has
large aqueous
channels-porins
Inner membrane series
of foldings – cristae
Matrix is the site of
‘kreb cycle’
Store a large amount of
DNA
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
Is an essential
requisite for protein
synthesis and
transport process.

Comprises of 50% of
the total volume of
the cell.
Consists of labyrinthine
network of tubules and sacs
Essential role in synthesis of
proteins and lipids.

Based on their structure

they have been divided into
two region
1. RER
2. SER
GOLGI APPARATUS
Is one the largest and
regularly outlined
structure of the cell.

Prominent in cells that

are undergoing active
synthesis
STRUCTURE
Consist of a number of
flattened membrane
bound structures called
cisternae.
Bound together through
tubular connection such
that they form a single
complex
Divided into two faces
1. Cis face
2. Trans face
 FUNCTIONS
Glycoprotein processing Proteoglycan processing Process of glycosylation

•Involved •Modification of the

•Proteoglycans are
in the addition of proteins occurs in each
processed as the
compartment in separate
oligosaccharide chain to glycosylaton
phases
the glycoproteins.
•This process has been
•Processing involves •Glycosaminoglycan side proposed to occur
both removal and chain of proteoglycans through 2 mechanisms
addition of sugars. are sulfated 1. Vesicular transport
2. Cisternal maturation
 LYSOSOMES
Lysosomes are vesicles that contain lysosomal enzymes used

to digest macromolecules.

Acts at a pH of 5 or less.

Bound by a firm , non porous membrane that prevents leakage

of the enzymes into the cytosol.

 glycosylated proteins are prevented from digestion due to

the presence of sugars bound to the protein.

Lysosomes can contain over 40 types of hydrolytic
enzymes
Enzymes Substrate
Ribonuclease RNA
Deoxyribonuclease DNA
Phosphatase Phosphate esters
Glycosidases Complex carbohydrates;
glycosides and polysaccharides
Arylsulfatases Sulfate esters
Collagenase Collagens

Lysosomes provides the scavenger apparatus that

required to cleanse the cell from any undesirable material.
PEROXISOMES
They called Peroxisomes because of their ability to produce

H2O2.
They are small, oval or spherical in shape.

They have a fine network of tubules in their matrix.

About 50 enzymes have been identified.

The number of enzymes fluctuates according to the

function of the cells.

NON MEMBRANOUS ORGANELLS
 RIBOSOMES
• They are dense, spherical and
granular particles, which occur
freely in the matrix or remain
attached to the surface of the ER.

• These are smallest known

electron microscopic,
ribonucleoprotein particles
found in the cytoplasm of both
prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

• Ribosome's are sites of protein

synthesis and hence are called
protein factories of the cells
Functions of ribosomes
Involved in synthesis of proteins.

The ribosomes attached with endoplasmic reticulum

are involved in synthesis of proteins like the enzymatic
proteins, hormonal proteins, lysosomal proteins and
the proteins of the cell membrane.

The free ribosomes are responsible for the synthesis of

proteins in haemoglobin, peroxisome and
mitochondria.
CYTOSKELETON
Network of protein fibers

supporting cell shape and

anchoring organelles

Microfilaments

Intermediate filaments

Microtubules
Microfilaments: serve as “cellular muscles”. They are thin,
twisted strands of protein molecules and usually form bundles
that lie parallel to the long axis of a cell.

Intermediate filaments: are twisted protein stands that are

slightly thicker than microfilaments. Thought to form much of
the supporting framework in many types of cells.

Microtubules: are the thickest cell fibers. They are tiny, hollow
tubes made of protein subunits arranged in spiral fashion. Called
the “engines” of cells because they often move things around.
Functions of microtubules
 Determine the shape of the cell

 Give structural strength to the cell

 Act like conveyer belts which allow the the movement of

granules,vesicles,protien molecules and some organelles
like mitochondria to different parts of the cell

 Form the spindle fibers which separate the chromosomes

during mitosis

 Responsible for the movements of centrioles and the

complex cellular structures like cilia.
Functions of microfilaments
 Gives structural strength to the cell.

 Provide resistance to the cell against the pulling forces.

 Responsible for cellular movements like contraction,

gliding and cytokinesis(partition of cytoplasm during
cell division).
Centrioles
Cylinder shaped

Aids in cell division

Usually found only in

animal cells

Found in cytoplasm
Cell extention
Cilia

Flagella

Microvilli: like tiny fingers crowded against each other

and
Covers surfaces where absorption is important.
eg: Epithelial cells that line the intestines.
Cilia
Short, numerous, hair like projections composed of pairs
of microtubules; frequently aid on locomotion.
CELL JUNCTIONS
Types of cell junction
1. Tight junction
2. Gap junction
3. Anchoring junction
TIGHT JUNCTION:

• Membranes of two cells

become opposed and the
outer layers are fused
together.

• This will form a protective

barrier against movement of
solutes from one cell to other.
FUNCTIONS:
• Commonly seen in walls of renal tubules, choroid
plexus, apical margins of cells in intestinal mucosa.

• Tight junctions in brain capillaries form blood brain

barrier which prevents the entry of harmful
substances into the brain tissues.
GAP JUNCTIONS:
• There is 2nm to 20nm space between
opposing membranes.
• Present in heart, basal epithelial cells
of intestinal mucosa.

FUNCTIONS:
• They permit the rapid propagation of
electric changes from one cell to
other. Eg: cardiac cells.
• Help in propagation of action
potential from one cell to another.
• Help in exchange of chemical
messengers between cells.
Anchoring junction
ANCHORING
JUNCTIONS

ADHERENS HEMIDESMOSOMES
JUNCTIONS

DESMOSOMES
ADHERENS JUNCTIONS:

• Here cell to cell contact occur through actin filaments.

• These junctions join the actin cytoskeleton to the plasma

membrane to form adhesive contacts between cells.
• These fibres extend from the cytoplasmic side of one cell to
the cytoplasm of the other cell.
• Cadherins (E cadherin)  are the major transmembrane protein
of the Adherens junction and initiate intercellular contacts
through trans-pairing between cadherins on opposing cells.
DESMOSOMES:
• They are found in high numbers in tissues that are subject
to a lot of mechanical forces. Eg: epidermis, myocardium.
• They are also found in between squamous epithelial cells,
which form the lining of the heart, blood vessels, air sacs
of the lungs, and oesophagus.
• Desmoglein and desmocollin are the two proteins that
bind cells at desmosomes.
• Desmoglein 1 and 3 are found in desmosomes of stratified
squamous epithelium while desmoglein 2 will be in all
tissues that form desmosomes.
• Desmoglein 2 and 3 are seen in basal and spinous cells
while desmoglein 1 appears in stratum granulosum.
• Plakoglobin, plakophilin and desmoplakin are cytoplasmic
proteins confined to the attachment plaque.
• Calcium is essential for desmosome formation. Sequestration of
calcium by exogenous chelating agents will cause the cells to dissociate
and the desmosomes undergo disassembly.
• Subsequent exposure of the dispersed cells to calcium leads to
reappearance of desmosomes.
• Hepatocyte growth factor produced by fibroblasts will cause
desmosome disassembly by stimulating the activity of tyrosine kinase.
• Defects in desmosome-intermediate filament complex will cause a
variety of epidermal and mucosal blistering disorders.
Hemidesmosomes:
• The keratinocytes of the basal layer of the skin are firmly attached
to the underlying basement membrane by hemidesmosomes.
• Hemidesmosomes can be categorized into two types based on
their protein constituents.
• Type 1 hemidesmosomes have integrin α6β4, plectin P1a,
tetraspanin, bullous pephigoid antigen.
• Type 2 hemidesmosomes will have integrin α6β4 and plectin and
not the bullous pemphigoid antigen.  
Types of cells
Blood cells
Muscle cell
Nerve cell
Different types of neuraglia
Cartilage cells
Bone cells
Skin cells
Fat cell
Gametes
conclusion
As cell is a Basic structural, Functional, & Metabolic
unit of life,

It is very important to understand the complexity of

CELL.
REFERENCES
An historical note on the cell theory. Ribatti, D.,

Experimental Cell Research (2018).

Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology Twenty-Third

Edition.
Molecular biology of periodontium. KV Arun.

K.Sembulingam & Prema Sembulingam

Essentials of Medical Physiology, second Edition.