Visual

Data
Presentation
Part II

Copyright (c) 2013 by The McGraw-Hill Companies. This material is solely for educational
use by licensed users of LearningStats. It may not be copied or resold for profit.
“Lord, Lord, how this
world is given to lying.”

- W. Shakespeare (Henry IV)

 Breaking the Rules

You will follow the rules

for good graphs. But not
everyone does.
It's time to learn some
self-defense.
 Avoiding Deception

1. Know types of graphs and when to use them.

2. Learn and apply rules of good graphing
3. Practice and improve your skills.
4. Learn deceptions that you may encounter.
5. Be critical of unclear or deceptive graphs.
 Non-Zero Origin

A non-zero origin on the Y-axis exaggerates

taller bars relative to shorter ones.

Measured bar height does not match the

stated values or axis demarcations.

Unless there is an axis scale, you may need a

ruler to detect this problem.
 Zero Origin
Bar heights are in correct proportions.

Mergers in Healthcare Services

600
480 464
500 430
408 419
400 366

300

200

100

0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Source: Modern Healthcare, By the Numbers, Dec. 19, 2005, p. 10.

 Non-Zero Origin
Mergers in 2005 appear to be about 15% of
2005. The true ratio is 76% (i.e., 366/480).

Mergers in Healthcare Services

500
480
464
450
430
419
408
400

366
350
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Source: Modern Healthcare, By the Numbers, Dec. 19, 2005, p. 10.

 Effect of Non-Zero Origin
Sources of Medical Error The second graph makes
it seem that adverse drug
Adverse drug effects
effects occur four times
Surgical incidents
as often as nosocomial
Patient Falls
infections. The first graph
Nosocomial Infections
correctly shows that the
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
ratio is less than 2 to 1.

Sources of Medical Error

Adverse drug effects

Surgical incidents

Patient Falls

Nosocomial Infections

12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26

Source: H&HN, Vol. 74, N. 4, April , 2000, p. 45.

 Zero Origin

The zero-origin rule is most

important for accounting
data (e.g., assets, revenue,
profit) that portrays the
changing financial status of
a company over time (it is
illegal to mislead investors).
Some scientific data
require a zero origin.
When is Non-Zero Origin O.K.?

There are situations when a zero origin

prevents effective display of the intended
information, e.g., stock indexes.

Source http://aolpf5.marketwatch.com/
 Always Zero Origin?

Sometimes a non-zero origin is needed to show

adequate detail. For example, to compare
men's and women's golf scores over the last 50
years, a zero-origin graph is not helpful.

U.S. Open Golf Winning Score, 1947-2002 U.S. Open Golf Winning Score, 1947-2002

350 305

300 300

250 295

200 290
Men Men
Women Women
150 285

100 280

50 275

0 270

47 51 955 959 963 967 971 975 979 983 987 991 995 999 47 51 55 59 63 67 71 75 79 83 87 91 95 99
19 19 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19
 Type of Scale

If the data magnitude varies

enormously, a log scale may be
necessary.
But not everyone understands
log scales. Be prepared to
explain its meaning.
 Log Scale
U.S. Trade Deficit, 1990-2004 On a linear scale, we can
700
see that the trade deficit
600
has increased at an
exponential rate of 20.8
Billions of Dollars .

500 Exponential trend:

400
20.8% annual growth rate percent per annum. On a
300 log scale, the trend is linear,
200
indicating a constant
100
percent rate of growth.
0
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

U.S. Trade Deficit, 1990-2004

1,000
Billions of Dollars .

Source: Economic Report of

the President, 2005 100
Linear trend:
20.8% annual growth rate

10
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004
 Unclear Definitions
Missing or unclear units of measurement
leave the reader in limbo. Is the variable
measured in dollars? Yen? Percent?

Company Growth

Undefined X and Y
600

500
variables can render a chart
400
useless. Are we showing
300 total revenue? Total profit?
200 Profit after taxes?
100

0
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
 Unlabeled Points
U.S. Hospital Closures, 1987-1997

100 88
76
For maximum clarity, 80 69
56 57
each bar should be 60 50
42
labeled with its 40
37 37 38

numerical value. 16
20

1987

1990
1991

1995
1996
1997
1988
1989

1992
1993
1994
Bar value labels may be omitted if the scale and axis tick
marks are clear (especially if a grid is used) or if you are
worried about distracting attention from the data.
 Uneven Axis Ticks

Years and axis demarcations should

be at even intervals on the scale. Where did 1998
and 1999 go?

Mercury Automobile Brands, 1996-2001

140,000

120,000

100,000 Grand Marquis

80,000 Sable
Mountaineer
60,000
Cougar
40,000 Villager

20,000

0
1996 1997 2000 2001
 Dramatic Title

Titles sometimes grab attention rather than

convey a chart's content (“Nurse Shortage
Looms”). It’s then harder for the reader to
draw an independent conclusion.
 Leading Title
In addition to the dramatic title, the non-zero origin and 3-D
scale make med school applications seem to grow wildly,
while actually the increase is only 11% over 4 years.

Med School Applications Soar!

38,000
37,364

36,000 35,735
34,791

34,000 33,625

32,000
2002 2003 2004
2005

Source: Association of American Medical Colleges (http:/www.aamc.org)

 Which Base Year?

Conclusions may differ, depending on which

base year you choose.

The title of the graph should reflect the data,

rather than the writer’s whims.
 Which Base Year?
Since 1970, there has been a decline. But
since 1950 there has been a slight increase.

Is Church Membership Slipping?

62
Percent of U.S. Population

60
58
56
54
52
50
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990

Source Yearbook of American and Canadian Churches.

 Estimated Data

To include the “latest” figures, the author may

estimate the last year (quarter, month, etc).

If one or two years’ data were missing, the chart

author is tempted to “fill in the blanks.”

Such points should be clearly noted (e.g., new

font, different color, or asterisk) and identified as
“estimated” in a footnote.
 Extended Graph Trick

Data may be shown to

“burst” through the
graph border.

This device may get

attention but obscures
the data.
 Vague Source

A source such as “Department of

Commerce” is useless. Such large
organizations may issue thousands of
reports per year.

Vague sources may indicate that the

author lost the citation, didn't know the
data source, or mixed data from several
sources.
 Vague Source
Oly mp ic Winning T ime in 8 0 0 Me te r R un

130

120 y = -0.6595x + 121.81

Me n

110 Women
y = -0.2133x + 105.67 Linea r
(Wome n)
Linea r
100 (Me n)
1960 1964 1968 1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000
Ye a r

Source Olympic records.

Not specific
enough!
 Authority Figures
Emergency Arrivals, 1980-1998
Advertisements 80000

sometimes feature 70000

60000
50000

attractive actors 40000

30000

portraying scientists,
20000
10000
0

doctors, or business 19
8 0 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19

leaders examining
scientific-looking charts.
Because the public
respects science, such
displays impart credibility
to self-serving
commercial claims.
 3-D and Rotated Graphs

3D charts are more interesting to the eye,

but may be harder to interpret. Tilting or
rotating a 3D graph can make trends
appear to dwindle into the distance or loom
menacingly toward you.
 Rotated 3D Bar Chart
Survival of Hospitals In Danger

800 721 Adding a scary

600
title further
311
400 obscures the
200 data.

1995
1990
1980
0 1970
1960
1950
1936

Survival of Hospitals Open in 1936

800 721
700 642
600 566
501
500 398
400 336 311
300
200
100
0
1936 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1995

Source: Boston University School of Public Health

 Distracting Pictures
For dramatic effect, artists may
superimpose a figure or drawing on a
chart. This can distract the reader or
impart an emotional slant to the chart.

Detroit Tigers Winning Percent for 2001 Season (n = 162 games)

0.600

0.500

0.400

0.300

0.200

0.100

0.000
 Distracting Pictures
Do For-Profit Hospitals Need a
Shot in the Arm?

1340
1330
Num ber of Hospitals

1320
1310
1300
1290
1280
1270
1260
1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999

Data are from Modern Healthcare, Vol. 30, No. 3, January 17, 2000, p. 20,
made into a weird chart to demonstrate this problem.
 Area Trick

Bar width changes as well as bar height.

This “area trick” distorts the trend.

A common instance is replacing graph bars

with figures (human beings, coins, gas
pumps). As figure height increases, so does
width, thereby distorting the area.
 Area Trick
Don’t replace graph bars with figures
2 x Height  4 x Area

1990 1995 2000

 Area Trick
Med School Applications Plunge!
45000 This 14% drop seems
43020 more impressive
because bar width
also declines.
41003

40000
38529

37137

35000
1997 1998 1999 2000

Data are from Modern Healthcare, Vol. 30, No. 45, October 30, 2000, p. 16,
made into a deceptive chart here to illustrate the point.
 Radar Chart
Example 3. Average Student Evaluation of Five Professors
On a Scale of 1 to 5 (5 = very good, 1 = very bad)
Jones Smith Green Brown
Sometimes called a
Grades Fairly 4.7 3.2 2.2 4.5 “spider chart.” Distorts
Organized 3.3 3.4 2.9 4.4 data by showing areas
Knows Subject 4.0 3.6 2.6 4.1
Explains Well 3.8 3.2 3.6 4.5 instead of true
Challenging 3.8 3.3 3.2 4.2 proportions.
Available 4.0 3.9 2.3 4.3
Enthusiastic 3.5 3.1 3.1 4.2

Grades Fairly
5.0 Ratings of Four Professors
4.0 Jones
Enthusiastic 3.0 Organized
Smith
2.0
Green
1.0
Brown
0.0
Available Knows Subject

Challenging Explains Well

 Visual Data
Presentation
“... a lie which is half a truth
is a harder matter to fight”
- A. Tennyson (1864)