Sources of Evidence

for Evolution
Section 8.2
Sound scientific theories can be used to
formulate testable predictions.

General predictions of evolutionary theory:

 the development of a diverse variety of
species from common ancestor(s)
 an increasing level of adaptation to
environmental conditions
Evolutionary theory is supported by evidence of the
following types:

1. Fossils
2. Biogeography
3. Comparative anatomy
4. Embryology
5. Molecular homology (DNA + Biochemistry)
Fossils
Evidence: Different species
are present in the fossil record,
at different times.
• Older fossils– Fewer species;
less complex than modern
• Newer fossils – Species are
similar to modern ones

Prediction: There should be fossils

that provide “links” between older and
newer groups of organisms.
 Such transitional fossils have been discovered.
• traits of both the ancestral and descendant species
• represent intermediate forms between groups

Modern
whale

Rodhocetus

Ambulocetus

Evidence whales descended from

Pakicetus: land mammals:
Land-dwelling • need to breathe air from surface
ancestor of the • bone structure and arrangement in fins
whale • vertical movement of spine
(similar to terrestrial mammals)
Example: Archeopteryx
▫ transitional form linking feathered
dinosaurs with modern birds
▫ shares more structural similarities
with small dinosaurs
Biogeography
The study of the geographical distribution of
species (past and present)

Predictions:
• Similar organisms should be found in neighbouring
regions.
• Proximity should be a better predictor of biological
similarity than environmental conditions.
Island evidence
• organisms found on islands are
similar to those on the nearest
continent
e.g. Galapagos finches

Continental evidence
• distribution of fossils on
continental coastlines reflect
prior super-continental
geography
Predictions:
• Isolated environments (like islands) should be home
distinctive species, since such environments have sharp
boundaries, and unique selective pressures.

Evidence:
• peculiar morphologies
• size changes (the “island rule”)

Flores giant rat a pygmy chameleon Galapagos tortoises

from Madagascar
Comparative Anatomy
Predictions:
Evolution is a remodeling process. Closely-related
species should share common structures.

Evidence:
The forelimbs of various
animals have the same
arrangement of bones.
 Homology:
Similarity resulting from
common ancestry.

Homologous structures
have a common
ancestral origin.

Functional similarities
may exist.

Differences are due to

divergent evolution.
 Divergent Evolution Convergent Evolution
Two species that share Two different species
a common ancestor begin to share similar
become increasingly traits due to similar
different selective pressures
Vestigial structures
▫ reduced “remnants” of ancestral structures
▫ most or all of their original function is lost
▫ provide evidence of common descent

Examples:
• human appendix
• pelvic bones in snakes
• eye remnants in blind
cave-dwelling animals

Blind cave salamander

 Be careful…
Not all structural similarities
indicate an evolutionary link:

Analogy:
Similarity resulting from
convergent evolution

Origin Function
Homologous Common May be similar,
structures ancestor but not always
Analogous Convergent
structures evolution Similar
 Analogous structures are
not derived from common
ancestry.

They share structural and

functional similarities.

Convergent evolution
produces analogy:
organisms become adapted
to similar environments and
ecological niches.
Marsupial mammals are a distinct group from
placental mammals. Many common features
have evolved separately in these two groups.
Case study: The “mole” body plan has arisen several
times due to convergent evolution.

Golden mole

True Mole
a l m ole
a r supi
M

Adaptations for subterranean lifestyle:

Pink fairy armadillo
• small, cylindrical body
• powerful forelimbs
• reduced eyes and ears
Embryology
Involves the study of early pre-birth stages of
an organism’s development

Evidence: The embryos of different organisms

display similar stages of early development
Early stage embryos possess homologous structures:
• pharyngeal pouches
• two-chambered heart
• a tail with muscles to move it
 Embryos become
less similar later in
development:

Differences reflect
specialization for
different niches.
DNA evidence
Prediction: The more closely-related two organisms are,
the more similar their genomes will be, due to homology.

Evidence:
• Superficially dissimilar organisms share common genes.
• Similarities in DNA sequences support theories of
common lineages formulated from other evidence.
Evidence from Biochemistry
Prediction: If all organisms descended from a common
ancestor, there should be a universal genetic “code”.

Evidence: There is a single genetic code shared by all

living organisms.

The universality of the genetic code, and of

biochemical organization, supports theory of a
single common ancestor.

LUCA : Last Universal Common Ancestor

Evidence is used to construct phylogenies.

Phylogeny:
The history of the evolution of a species
 A phylogenetic tree indicates
the proposed evolutionary
relationships between species.

Nodes indicate an
ancestral species,
which diverged to
produce new lineages.
 a) To which group are crocodiles more
closely related: lizards, or ostriches?
See Campbell pg. 464 for a b) Which are more closely related to
discussion of “Tree thinking” amphibians: mammals, or birds?
Primates are an order of
mammals that have
features specialized for
tree-dwelling.

a) Do humans share a more

recent common ancestor
with gorillas, or with
baboons?

b) What species would

likely share the most
characteristics with
white-lipped tamarins?
Phylogenetic tree based on the degree of similarity
in the hemoglobin amino acid sequence
Summary
• There is evidence of gradual change in living
organisms.

• The fossil record contains a chronological record

of life on Earth. More recent species bear
increasing similarity to modern species.

• Areas that are (or were in the past) geographically

close are more likely to contain related species.
• Homologous structures have a common
ancestral origin, but may have evolved modified
structures and purposes by divergent evolution.

• Analogous structures do not have a common

ancestral origin. These evolve independently as
adaptations, by convergent evolution.
• Similarities in the early stages of embryonic
development provide evidence of a common
ancestor.

• DNA sequences and other biochemical

molecules provide evidence of evolutionary
relatedness.

• Phylogenies are hypothesized evolutionary

relationships between species. They are
constructed based on existing evidence.
Homework
• Read 8.2
• Pg. 340 #2-6 (skip 4), 9-13 (skip 10), 17