The Early Middle Ages: The Fall of Rome Changed The Political, Religious, and Cultural Landscape of Medieval Europe

The Early Middle Ages
The fall of Rome changed the political, religious, and

cultural landscape of medieval Europe.
Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

Charlemagne Unites Germanic Kingdoms
Many Germanic kingdoms that succeeded the Roman Empire were reunited
under Charlemagne’s empire.

LESSON 3 Charlemagne United Germanic Kingdoms
Invasions of Western Europe

• Germanic invaders overrun western Roman Empire in 400s
• Fighting disrupts trade and government; people abandon cities
• Marks the beginning of the Middle Ages—period from 500 to 1500
The Decline of Learning

• As cities are abandoned
• level of learning declines
• Knowledge of Greek language and culture is almost completely lost
Loss of a Common Language

• Introduction of German language changes Latin
• Different dialects developed
• Rise of the vernacular (own tongue)

4

Lesson 3
Germanic Kingdoms Emerge

• Germanic kingdoms replace Roman provinces
• Continual wars change borders between kingdoms
• The Church provides order and security
The Concept of Government Changes

• Germans held together by family ties and loyalty,
not government
• Small communities are governed by unwritten
rules and traditions
• Germanic warriors pledge loyalty to their chief;
live in lord’s hall
5 Continued…

6

Lesson 3
Germanic Kingdoms Emerge
Clovis Rules the Franks

• Germanic people called Franks
hold power in Roman province of
Gaul
• Clovis, leader of the Franks,
converts to Christianity in 496
• Leads warriors against other
Germanic armies
• Unites Franks into one kingdom
with Church’s help by 511
7

Lesson 3
Germans Adopt Christianity

• Frankish rulers convert Germanic peoples to Christianity
• Missionaries travel to convert Germanic and Celtic groups
Monasteries, Convents, and Manuscripts

• Church builds monasteries—where monks live to study and serve God
• Italian monk, Benedict, writes rules that govern monastic life
• His sister Scholastica adapts rules for nuns living in convents
• Monks establish schools, preserve learning through libraries
8 Continued…

Lesson 3
Germans Adopt Christianity

Papal Power Expands Under Gregory I
• In 590, Gregory I, also called Gregory
the Great, becomes pope
• Under Gregory, Church becomes
secular—a political power
• Pope’s palace becomes center of
Roman government
• Uses Church money to raise armies,
care for poor, negotiate treaties
• Establishes a Christendom—churchly
kingdom fanning out from Rome

Lesson 3
An Empire Evolves
• The Franks control largest and strongest of
Europe’s many kingdoms
• By 511, Frankish rule extends over what is
now France
Charles Martel Emerges

• Most powerful official in kingdom is major
domo—mayor of the palace
• In 719, major domo Charles Martel
becomes more powerful than king
• Defeats Muslims from Spain at Tours in
732; becomes a Christian hero
• Son, Pepin, begins Carolingian Dynasty—
family that ruled 751–987
10

Lesson 3
Charlemagne Becomes Emperor

From Pepin to Charlemagne
• Pepin dies in 768, leaves kingdom to two sons; in 771 one son dies
• Second son, Charlemagne (Charles the Great), rules kingdom
• Charlemagne’s Government
Charlemagne’s armies reunite western Europe, spread Christianity
• In 800, Charlemagne travels to Rome to protect Pope Leo III from
mobs
• Pope crowns Charlemagne emperor; gives him title, “Roman
Emperor”
• Germanic power, Church, heritage of Roman Empire now joined
together
11 Continued…

Lesson 3
Charlemagne Becomes Emperor

Charlemagne Leads a Revival
• Charlemagne limits nobles’ power by governing through
royal agents
• Encourages learning and orders monasteries to open
schools
Charlemagne’s Heirs
• Charlemagne dies in 814; his son, Louis the Pious, rules
poorly
• Louis’s three grandsons fight for control of empire
• In 843 they divide empire into three kingdoms; sign Treaty
of Verdun
12 Continued…

Method of Spreading Christianity
Clovis Converted himself and his army
Benedict Wrote rule book for monasteries
Extended papal power; blended church and government

Gregory I
power
Charles Martel Defeated Muslims at Battle of Tours
Charlemagne
Spread Christianity through conquests; was crowned
emperor by pope
13

LESSON 4
Feudalism and Manorialism
Feudalism, a political and economic system based on
land-holding and protective alliances, emerged in Europe.
Causes
Magyar, Muslim, and Viking invasions;
decline of centralized government
Rise of Feudalism
Effects
Increased emphasis on warfare and the control of land;
well-defined social classes
14

LESSON 4 Feudalism and Manorialism
Invaders Attack Western Europe

The Vikings Invade from the North
• Warlike Vikings raid Europe from Scandinavia—Denmark, Norway, Sweden
• Viking long ships sail in shallow water, allowing raids inland
• Eventually, many Vikings adopt Christianity and become farmers
Magyars and Muslims Attack from the East and South

• Magyars (Hungarian nomads) invade western Europe in late 800s
• Muslims strike north from Africa, attacking through Italy and Spain
• Viking, Magyar, Muslim invasions cause widespread disorder, suffering
15

Lesson 4
A New Social Order: Feudalism
Feudalism Structures Society

850 to 950, feudalism emerges
• Feudalism is a political system based on land
control
• A lord (landowner) gives fiefs (land grants) in
exchange for services
• Vassals—people who receive fiefs—become
powerful landholders
The Feudal Pyramid

Power in feudal system much like a pyramid, with
king at the top
• Kings served by nobles who are served by
knights; peasants at bottom
• Knights—horsemen—defend their lord’s land in
exchange for fiefs 16 Continued…

Lesson 4
A New Social Order: Feudalism

Social Classes Are Well Defined
• Medieval feudal system classifies people into three social groups
- those who fight: nobles and knights
- those who pray: monks, nuns, leaders of the Church
- those who work: peasants
• Social class is usually inherited; majority of people are peasants
• Most peasants are serfs—people lawfully bound to place of birth
• Serfs aren’t slaves, but what they produce belongs to their lord
17

18

Lesson 4
Manors: The Economic Side of Feudalism

• The lord’s estate, a manor, has an economic system (manor system)
• Serfs and free peasants maintain the lord’s estate, give grain
• The lord provides housing, farmland, protection from bandits
A Self-Contained World
Medieval manors include lord’s house, church, workshops, village
• Manors cover a few square miles of land, are largely self-sufficient
New Tools for Farmers

People invented new tools for farming
• Metal horseshoes and pitchforks invented; new type of harness
developed
19 Continued…

Lesson 4
Manors: The Economic Side of Feudalism

The Harshness of Manor Life
Peasants pay taxes to use mill and bakery; pay a tithe to priest
• Tithe—a church tax—is equal to one-tenth of a peasant’s
income
• Serfs live in crowded cottages with dirt floors, straw for beds
• Daily grind of raising crops, livestock; feeding and clothing family
• Poor diet, illness, malnutrition make life expectancy 35 years
• Serfs generally accept their lives as part of God’s plan
20

The Harshness of Manor Life
21

Causes
Magyar, Muslim, and Viking invasions;
decline of centralized government
Rise of Feudalism
Effects
Increased emphasis on warfare and the control of land;
well-defined social classes
LESSON 5 Society in the Feudal Era
The code of chivalry for knights glorified both combat and romantic
love.
23

LESSON 5 Society in the Feudal Era
Knights: Warriors on Horseback
The Technology of Warfare Changes
• Leather saddle and stirrups enable knights to
handle heavy weapons
• In 700s, mounted knights become most important
part of an army
The Warrior’s Role in Feudal Society

• By 1100s, western Europe is battleground of
warring nobles
• Feudal lords raise private armies of knights
• Knights rewarded with land; provides income
needed for weapons
• Knights’ other activities help train them for
combat
24

Lesson 5
Knighthood and the Code of Chivalry

• By 1100s knights obey code of chivalry—a set
of ideals on how to act
• They are to protect weak and poor; serve
feudal lord, God, chosen lady
A Knight’s Training
• Boys begin to train for knighthood at age 7;
usually knighted at age 21
• Knights gain experience in local wars and
tournaments—mock battles
Brutal Reality of Warfare

• Castles are huge fortresses where lords live
• Attacking armies use wide range of strategies
and weapons
25

Lesson 5
The Literature of Chivalry

Epic Poetry
• Epic poems recount a hero’s deeds and adventures
• The Song of Roland is about Charlemagne’s knight
fighting Muslims
Love Poems and Songs

• Knights’ duties to ladies are as important as those to
their lords
• Troubadours—traveling poet-musicians—write and
sing short verses
• Most celebrated woman of the age is Eleanor of
Aquitaine (1122–1204)
• Eleanor’s son, Richard the Lion-Hearted, also wrote
songs and poems
26

courtly love courage
war games
epic poems
for glory
Chivalry horses as
Christian faith status symbols
loyalty courtesy
women on pedestal
27

Lesson 5
Women’s Role in Feudal Society

• According to the Church and feudal society, women are inferior to men
Noblewomen
• Can inherit land, defend castle, send knights to war on lord’s request
• Usually confined to activities of the home or convent
Peasant Women
• Most labor in home and field, bear children, provide for family
• Poor, powerless, do household tasks at young age
28

Church and Society in Western Europe
Church leaders and political leaders competed for power and

authority.
29

Church and Society in Western Europe
ESSENTIAL QUESTION
What would Europe look like today if the Crusades had not happened?
LESSON 1 The Power of the Church
LESSON 2 Church Reform and the Crusades
LESSON 3 Changes in Medieval Society
LESSON 4 England and France Develop
LESSON 5 Troubles of the 14th Century
30

LESSON 1
The Power of the Church
Church leaders and political leaders competed for power and authority.
31

LESSON 1 The Power of the Church
The Far-Reaching Power of the Church
The Structure of the Church
• Power within Church is organized by status; pope is supreme authority
• Clergy—religious officials—includes bishops, priests, and others
• Bishops supervise priests, settle Church disputes
Religion as a Unifying Force

• Religion important in Middle Ages; shared beliefs bond people
• Clergy administers the sacraments—rites to achieve salvation
• Village church is place of worship and celebration
32 Continued…

The Far-Reaching Authority of the Church
The Law of the Church
• The Church has system of justice to guide people’s conduct
• All medieval Christians expected to obey canon law—Church law
• Canon law governs marriages and religious practices
• Popes have power over political leaders through threat of
- excommunication—banishment from Church, denial of salvation
- interdiction—king’s subjects denied sacraments and services
• Kings and emperors expected to obey pope’s commands
33

The Church and the Holy Roman Empire
Otto I Allies with the Church
• Otto I (Otto the Great) is crowned king of Germany
in 936
• Limits strength of nobles with help of clergy
• Gains support of bishops and abbots (heads of
monasteries)
• Invades Italy on pope’s behalf; pope crowns him
emperor in 962
Sign of Future Conflicts
• Otto’s German-Italian lands become Holy Roman
Empire
• Holy Roman Empire is the strongest European
power until about 1100
511 Clovis unites Franks 732 Charles Martel 900s Outside 1190 Holy Roman
under Christian rule. stops Muslim invasion. invasions spur growth Empire weakens.
800 Charlemagne of feudalism.
962 Otto the Great
crowned emperor
crowned emperor.
by the pope.34
500 © by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company
Copyright 1200
The Emperor Clashes with the Pope
• Pope Gregory VII bans lay investiture—kings appointing Church officials
• Henry IV orders pope to resign; Gregory VIII excommunicates Henry
Showdown at Canossa
• Henry goes to Canossa, Italy, to beg Gregory for forgiveness
• Gregory forgives Henry
• lay investiture problem is not solved
Concordat of Worms
• Concordat of Worms is 1122 compromise in Worms, Germany
• Compromise: pope appoints bishops
• emperor can veto appointment
35

Disorder in the Empire
The Reign of Frederick I
• In 1152, Frederick I, nicknamed
“Barbarossa” for his red beard, becomes
king
• Dominates German princes
• Disorder breaks out whenever he leaves
Germany
German States Remain Separate

• German kings after Frederick try to
revive empire
• German princes, who elect kings, prefer
to keep them weak
36

The Catholic Church underwent reform and launched Crusades against Muslims.
37

The Age of Faith

• Starting in the 900s, monasteries help bring about a spiritual revival
• Reformers help restore and expand Church power
Problems in the Church

• Reformers distressed by issues within the Church
• Some Church officials marry even though the Church objects
• Some officials practice simony—selling religious offices
• Kings use lay investiture to appoint bishops
• Reformers believe only the Church should appoint bishops
38 Continued…

Lesson 2
The Age of Faith
Reform and Church Organization
• Starting in 1100s, popes reorganize Church like a kingdom
• Pope’s advisors make Church laws; diplomats travel throughout
Europe
• Church collects tithes; uses money to care for sick, poor
New Religious Orders

• Dominican and Franciscan orders form
• Friars in these orders vow poverty; travel and preach to the poor
• Some new orders for women are founded
39

Lesson 2
Cathedrals—Cities of God
• Between 800–1100, churches are built
in Romanesque style
• Style includes thick walls and pillars,
small windows, round arches
A New Style of Church Architecture

• Gothic style evolves around 1100; term
from Germanic tribe, Goths
• Gothic style has large, tall windows for
more light; pointed arches
• Churches have stained glass windows,
many sculptures
• About 500 Gothic churches are built
from 1170 to 1270
40

Lesson 2
The Crusades
• In 1093, Byzantine emperor asks for help fighting the
Turks
• Pope Urban II issues a call for a Crusade—a “holy war”
Goals of the Crusades

• Pope wants to reclaim Jerusalem and reunite
Christianity
- Wants control of the Holy Land—Palestine; the area
where Jesus lived
• Kings use the Crusades to send away knights who cause
trouble
• Younger sons hope to earn land or win glory by fighting
• Later, merchants join Crusades to try to gain wealth
through trade
41 Continued…

Lesson 2
The Crusades
The First and Second Crusades
• Pope promises Crusaders who die a place in heaven
• First Crusade: three armies gather at Constantinople in 1097
• Crusaders capture Jerusalem in 1099
• Captured lands along coast divided into four Crusader states
• Muslims take back Edessa in 1144; Second Crusade fails to retake it
• In 1187 Saladin—Muslim leader and Kurdish warrior—retakes Jerusalem
42 Continued…

Lesson 2
The Crusades
The Third Crusade
• Third Crusade led by three powerful rulers
• One is Richard the Lion-Hearted—king of England
• Phillip II of France abandons Crusade after arguing with Richard
• Frederick I of Germany drowns during the journey
• In 1192, Richard and Saladin make peace after many battles
• Saladin keeps Jerusalem but allows Christian pilgrims to enter city
43

Lesson 2
The Crusading Spirit Dwindles

• Fourth Crusade: Crusaders loot Constantinople in 1204
• Two other Crusades strike Egypt, but fail to weaken
Muslims
The Strange Story of the Children’s Crusade
• In 1212, thousands of “children” set out to conquer
Jerusalem
• Historians doubt this Children Crusades happed
• “Children” most likely landless peasants and laborers
44

Lesson 2
The Effects of the Crusades

• Crusades show power of Church in convincing
thousands to fight
• Women who stay home manage the estate and
business affairs
• Merchants expand trade, bring back many goods
from Southwest Asia
• Failure of later crusades weakens pope and
nobles, strengthens kings
• Crusades create lasting bitterness between
Muslims and Christians
45

The feudal system declined as agriculture, trade, finance, towns,

and universities developed.
46

A Growing Food Supply

• From 800 to 1200 the climate warms, opening more land to farming
• Changes in technology result in more food production
Switch to Horsepower
• Harnessed horses replace oxen in pulling plows and wagons
• Horses plow three times as much a day, increasing food supply
The Three-Field System

• Around 800 three-field system used—plant two fields, let one rest
• This produces more food and leads to population increase
47

48

Lesson 3
The Guilds
• Guilds develop—organization of people in the same
occupation
• Merchant guilds begin first; they keep prices up, provide
security
• Skilled artisans, men and women, form craft guilds
• Guilds set standards for quality, prices, wages, working
conditions
• Guilds supervise training of new members of their craft
• The wealth of guilds influences government and economy
49

Lesson 3
Commercial (Financial) Revolution

Fairs and Trade
•Europe sees Commercial Revolution—changes in business and
trade
•Trade fairs are held several times a year in towns
•Trade routes open to Asia, North Africa, and Byzantine ports
Business and Banking
Merchants develop credit to avoid carrying large sums of money
•Merchants take out loans to purchase goods, and banking
grows
• Letters of credit—a letter issued by a bank allowing the bearer
to withdraw money, eliminated the need to carry large
amounts of cash
Society Changes
Economic changes lead to the growth of cities and of paying
jobs
50

Lesson 3
Urban Life Flourishes

• 1000-1150, Europe’s population rises from 30 million to 42 million
• Most towns are small, but they help drive change
Trade and Towns Grow Together

• Towns are uncomfortable: crowded, dirty, full of fire hazards
• Serfs can become free by living in a town for a year and a day
Merchant Class Shifts the Social Order
• Feudal lords tax and govern towns, causing resentment
• Towns are taken over by burghers—town merchants
51

Lesson 3
The Revival of Learning

The Muslim Connection
• Christian scholars read translations of Greek
works made by Muslims
• Crusaders return with Muslim knowledge of
navigation, ships, weapons
Scholars and the University

• Groups of scholars gather to teach and learn;
form universities
• Written works not in Latin but in vernacular—
everyday language
Aquinas and Medieval Philosophy

• Thomas Aquinas, a religious scholar, mixes
Greek and Christian thought
• He is a scholastic—university man; debates
issues to increase knowledge
52

LESSON 4 England and France Develops
As the kingdoms of England and France began to develop into nations, certain
democratic traditions evolved.
53

LESSON 4 England and France Develops
England Absorbs Waves of Invaders

• England and France first nations in Europe to develop
unified governments
• Invaders from various European regions invaded Britain
Early Invasions
• Danish Vikings invade England throughout the 800s
• Alfred the Great and his successors gradually unite England
• Danish king Canute invades in 1016, uniting Vikings and
Anglo-Saxons
The Norman Conquest

• In 1066, England is invaded for last time by William the
Conqueror
• He defeats his rival for English crown, becomes king
• William keeps one-fifth of land; hands out rest to supporters
54

Lesson 4
England’s Evolving Government

• English rulers’ goal: to control lands in both England
and France
• Henry II—king of England—gains more French land
through marriage
• Henry is king in England and a vassal in France
Juries and Common Law

• Henry sends judges to all parts of England and
institutes juries
• The judges’ decisions form English common law—
unified body of laws
• Common law forms the basis of law in many
• English-speaking countries
55 Continued…

Lesson 4
England’s Evolving Government

The Magna Carta
• In 1215 English nobles force King John to sign Magna Carta
• Magna Carta—limits king’s power and guarantees basic political rights
• English people argue the rights are for all people, not just nobles
The Model Parliament

• In 1295, Edward I summons wealthy townsmen and knights to raise taxes
- Summons two burgesses from every borough—a self governing town
- Summons two nights from every county
• Together with bishops and lords, they form a parliament—legislative body
• Parliament has two houses: House of Lords, House of Commons
56

Lesson 4
Capetian Dynasty Rules France

• New French dynasty founded by Hugh Capet—a duke from
central France
• The Capetians rule France from Paris from 987–1328
France Becomes a Separate Kingdom

• Early Capetians are weak rulers; gradually kings become
stronger
Phillip II Expands His Power
• Philip II—a powerful Capetian, rules 1180–1223
• Philip expands land controlled by French king
• He establishes bailiffs to collect taxes and run courts
57 Continued…

Lesson 4

Phillip II’s Heirs
• 1226 to 1270 grandson Louis IX strengthens the
central government
• 1285 to 1314 Philip IV rules; questions pope’s
authority in France
• Philip calls meeting of lords and bishops to support
his policies
• He decides to include commoners in the meeting
Estates-General
• The meeting is called the Estates-General
• Participants in the council come from France’s three
Estates
- First Estate—Church leaders
- Second Estate—lords
- Third Estate—commoners, landholders, merchants
58 Continued…

Lesson 4

Beginnings of Democracy
• England and France begin to establish a democratic tradition
• A centralized government is created to rule widespread lands
• Common law and court system support a central government
• Commoners included in decision making
59

LESSON 5
Troubles of the 14th Century
In the 1300s, Europe was torn apart by religious strife, famine, the bubonic
plague, and the Hundred Years’ War.
60

LESSON 5 Troubles of the 14th Century
A Church Divided
• During the 1300s, the Church faced a huge division
Pope and King Collide

• In 1300, Pope Boniface VIII asserts authority over France’s Philip IV
• Philip has him imprisoned; pope dies soon after
Avignon and the Great Schism

• In 1305, French pope is chosen; moves to Avignon—city in France
• In 1378, two popes chosen—one in Rome, one in Avignon
• Each declares the other false, causing split called Great Schism
• In 1417, Council of Constance ends schism, chooses Martin V as pope
61 Continued…

Lesson 5
A Church Divided
Scholars Challenge Church Authority
• Englishman John Wycliffe argues Jesus is
head of the Church, not pope
• Wycliffe preaches against wealth and
worldliness of clergy
• Wycliffe inspires English translation of New
Testament
• Jan Hus—Bohemian professor—teaches that
Bible is final authority
• Hus is excommunicated, tried as a heretic,
burned at stake in 1415
62

The Great Famine and Bubonic Plague Strike
• A series of disasters decrease Europe’s population
• The Great Famine struck between 1315 - 1317
• Severe winters and heavy rains ruined crops
• Famine devastated population; effects lasted until the 1320s
The Plague Strikes

• In 1300s, Europe is struck by the Black Death—a deadly disease
• The disease may have been the bubonic plague—disease spread
by fleas
• Begins in Asia; spreads to Italy and other countries over trade
routes
• About one-third of Europe’s population dies in the epidemic
63 Continued…

Lesson 5
The Great Famine and Bubonic Plague Strike

Origins and Impact of the Plague
• In 1346, plague struck Mongol armies laying siege to Kaffa
• Rats invested with disease-carrying fleas got on ships
- Merchants traveled with diseased rats to different regions
• Plague spreads quickly throughout Europe
• In some regions, two-thirds to three-quarters population died
Effects of the Plague

• Town populations fall, trade declines, prices rise
• Some serfs leave manors for paying work
• Many Jews blamed and killed; Church suffers weakened stature
64

Lesson 5
The Hundred Years’ War

• Hundred Years’ War—lasts from 1337–
1453, between England and France
• English king Edward III claims French
throne
• War marks the end of medieval society;
change in style of warfare
The Longbow Changes Warfare
• In 1346, English army with longbows
beats much larger French army
• The English win other victories with
longbows in 1356 and 1415
• Victory of longbows signals end of
reliance on knights 65 Continued…

Joan of Arc
• Joan of Arc—French peasant girl who
believes in visions of saints
• She leads French army to victory at
Orléans; Charles VII crowned king
• In 1430 England’s allies, the Burgundians,
capture Joan in battle
• The Church condemns Joan as a witch
and heretic
• On May 30, 1431, she is burned at the
stake
66 Continued…

The Impact of the Hundred Years’ War
• Hundred Years’ War ends in 1453
• France and England experience major changes
- rise in nationalistic feelings; king becomes national leader
- power and prestige of French monarch increases
- religious devotion and the code of chivalry crumbles
• England begins period of turmoil, War of the Roses
67

68

The Early Middle Ages: The Fall of Rome Changed The Political, Religious, and Cultural Landscape of Medieval Europe

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The Early Middle Ages

The fall of Rome changed the political, religious, and

Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

Invasions of Western Europe

The Decline of Learning

Loss of a Common Language

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Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

Germanic Kingdoms Emerge

The Concept of Government Changes

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Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

Germanic Kingdoms Emerge

Clovis Rules the Franks

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Germans Adopt Christianity

Monasteries, Convents, and Manuscripts

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Germans Adopt Christianity

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Charles Martel Emerges

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Charlemagne Becomes Emperor

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Charlemagne Becomes Emperor

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Clovis Converted himself and his army

Benedict Wrote rule book for monasteries

Extended papal power; blended church and government

Charles Martel Defeated Muslims at Battle of Tours

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Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

Invaders Attack Western Europe

Magyars and Muslims Attack from the East and South

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A New Social Order: Feudalism

Feudalism Structures Society

The Feudal Pyramid

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A New Social Order: Feudalism

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Manors: The Economic Side of Feudalism

New Tools for Farmers

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Manors: The Economic Side of Feudalism

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The Warrior’s Role in Feudal Society

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Knighthood and the Code of Chivalry

Brutal Reality of Warfare

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The Literature of Chivalry

Love Poems and Songs

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Women’s Role in Feudal Society

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Church leaders and political leaders competed for power and

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