The Discovery of Elemental Phosphorus

Compounds of P are Essential for Life (e.g. Phosphate DNA/RNA)

Compounds of P are used as Chemical weapons (e.g. Phosphate Esters Sarin/VX Nerve
gas
Elemental P in its “white” allotrope formula P4 reacts violently with O2 very bright flame
It is highly toxic. Has been used extensively in artillary, tracer rounds, grenades.
It is also a highly a controlled substance, since it can be used in the preparation of “Meth”
 P 13th Element discovered.
Hennig Brand German Alchemist in 1669

Phosphate

H20

Wanted to Find the “Philosopher Stone”

Logic: Urine is gold colored, so there must be some relationship to Au
He collected 1,100 liters of urine and boiled it down to a red oily residue
When the residue was heated very high, white P is formed and vaporizes.
If condensed into H2O, where it is not soluble it can be collected without igniting
Elements were grouped together by their atomic masses and chemical properties
Predicted there where unknown elements (e.g. Gallium atomic weight 68, low melting
Point discovered in 1876.)
 Mendeleev and the Periodic Table
(1869)
Mendeleev used atomic mass and periodic trends to order
the elements; his table predicted the existence of elements
not yet discovered at the time (Ga, Sc, Ge…).

Periodic trends trumped atomic mass in some cases.

1. Where did the idea of atoms originate?
2. What is the evidence that allows us to conclude
that atoms exist?
3. How have our models of the atom evolved over
time?

Let’s take a tour through a history of scientific

discovery and find answers to these questions…
6
Robert Boyle (1627-1691)

Credited with the first person to study

chemistry as a distinct discipline and
conduct rigorous chemical experiments
(primarily with gases). First to clearly
define an element as a substance
that cannot be chemically broken down
further.
 Discovery of Oxygen

Joseph Priestly Discovers Oxygen 1774 Although he didn’t quite know it was an element
at the time. Believed in “Phlogiston Theory”, an obsolete scientific theory to explain
combustion. He inhailed the gas and noted respiration became easier. Also noted it aided
combustion.
 Law of Conservation of Mass

chemical formula

2HgO 2Hg + O2
Antoine Lavoisier
“was a quantitative
Chemist”. Repeated chemical equation
Priestley's
experiments and
discovered mass 2HgO = 2(HgO)
conservation.
Incidentally he was
Guillotined during the
French revolution.
The 2 in front means we have 2 atoms of Hg and 2 atoms of O
 Conservation of Mass and the Law of
Definite Proportions
Law of Conservation of Mass: Law of Definite Proportions:
Different samples of pure chemical
Mass is neither created nor
compounds always have same proportion
destroyed in chemical reactions. of elements by mass (Joseph Proust 1754-
1826)
Hg(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) HgI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)

3.25 g + 3.32 g = 6.57 g 4.55 g + 2.02 g = 6.57 g

Aqueous solutions of mercury(II) nitrate
and potassium iodide will react to form a
precipitate of mercury(II) iodide and
aqueous potassium iodide.
 Law of Multiple Proportions and
Dalton’s Atomic Theory

John Dalton (1766-1844)

Law of Multiple Proportions: Elements can combine

in different ways to form different compounds, with
mass ratios that are small whole-number multiples of
each other.

NO (nitric oxide): 8 grams oxygen per 7 grams nitrogen

NO2 (nitrous oxide): 16 grams oxygen per 7 grams nitrogen

 Dalton’s Atomic Theory – (1805)

Taking into account the three laws (mass conservation,

definite proportions, and multiple proportions) he
proposed the following:

1. Matter is composed of indivisible particles called atoms.

2. Atoms of the same element have the same chemical

properties.

3. Compounds are made of combinations of atoms of

different elements, and are formed in reactions where
rearrangements or separations of atoms occur (atoms
are not created from nothing).
 J.J. Thomson Cathode Ray Tube (1897)
Sealed, “mostly” evacuated
tube as above. When voltage Nobel Prize 1903
applied a glowing beam called (first Nobel Prize 1901)
a cathode ray is produced. It is
deflected by electric or
magnetic fields.

He proposed that cathode rays must

consist of tiny, negatively charged
particles which we now call electrons.

Furthermore, since cathode rays are

generated from many different metals
all of these elements must contain
electrons.
Charge/Mass ratio

e/m = 1.758 x 108 C/g

C = Coulombs
g = mass of electron
Atomic Structure: Electrons
Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment

Nobel Prize 1923

Millikan measured the charge e = 1.602176 10-19C

 Mass of an Electron
JJ Thompson measured the ratio e/m 1.758820 X 108 C/g

Millikan measured the charge e = 1.602176 10-19 C

So the mass of an electron (m) could be

determined by substituting in e to the e/m ratio

m = 9.109382 X 10-28g
 E. Rutherford Gold Foil
Experiment (1911)

Alpha particle is He+2 Nobel Prize 1908 "for his

Important Conclusions: investigations into the
disintegration of the
elements, and the chemistry
1) Most an atom is empty space. of radioactive substances".

2) Because alpha particles are positively charged Rutherford also discovered

and they are deflected, the “nucleus” of the atom The proton in 1917.
must be positively charged. Mass of atom is
concentrated in nucleus.
 Chadwick Beryllium Experiment
(1932)

Nuclear Model of the Atom: nucleus possesses

protons and neutrons; “electron cloud”
surrounds the nucleus.
 Atoms: subatomic particles Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons

A Proton has a mass of 1.67262 x 10 -24 g

A Neutron has same mass of 1.67493 x 10 -24 g

Electrons have much much much less mass 9.10938 x 10 -28 g

 Atomic Numbers
Atomic Number (Z): Number of protons in an
atom’s nucleus. Equivalent to the number of
electrons around the atom’s nucleus.

Mass Number (A): The sum of the number of

protons and the number of neutrons in an atom’s
nucleus.

Isotope: Atoms with identical atomic numbers but

different mass numbers.
Neutrons, Atomic Number, Mass
Number
carbon-12
mass number
12 6 protons
6 C 6 electrons
6 neutrons
atomic number

1 amu = 1/12 12C atom = 1.660538783 x 10-24 g

12
C= 12 amu

carbon-14
mass number
14 6 protons
6 C 6 electrons
8 neutrons
atomic number
 Atomic Masses
The mass of 1 atom of carbon-12 is defined to be 12 amu.
Atomic Mass: The weighted average of the isotopic
masses of the element’s naturally occurring isotopes.
 Atomic Masses
Why is the atomic mass of the element carbon 12.01 amu?

carbon-12: 98.89 % natural abundance 12.00 amu

carbon-13: 1.11 % natural abundance 13.0034 amu

mass of carbon = (12.00 amu)(0.9889) + (13.0034 amu)(0.0111)

= 11.87 amu + 0.144 amu

= 12.01 amu
 Periodic Table

How can we explain this discrepancy? While number of protons

increases and defines what element we have, the number of
neutrons does not necessarily have to stay the same.

17 isotopes of tellurium (Te) Iodine is found almost

with atomic masses that exclusively as 127I
range from 105 to 142
 Atomic Mass and the Mole
Molar Mass: One mole of any element is the
amount whose mass in grams is numerically
equivalent to its atomic mass.

Consider hydrogen (H). H has an atomic weight of

1.0079 amu. If we simply use the number for
atomic mass for H read from the periodic table
and change the units to grams (e.g. 1.0079 g) we
get the molar mass. Moles are used for
convenience to keep track of the amount of atoms
weighed on practical instruments like an analytical
balances. 1.0079 amu = 1.660538783 x 10-24 g. If
we multiple 1 amu by Avogadro’s Number (NA)
6.0221 x 1023 we get 1.0079 g, which is equal to a
mole of H atoms. One mole of any element
contains 6.0221 x 1023 atoms.
 How many moles are in 0.250 g of Na?
1 mol Na
0.250 g Na x = 0.0109 mol
23.0 g

How many mmols is this?

mmol
0.0109 mol Na x = 10.9 mmol
-3
1 x 10 mol

How grams are in 2.00 mol Na?

23.0 g
2.00 mol Na x = 46.0 g
1 mol Na