55-700843

Control of Linear Systems

Lecture 2: Dynamic System Responses,

& Time Domain Performance Criteria

Dr. Xu XuXu.Xu@shu.ac.uk
 Outline
• Poles and Zeros of a System
• System Response (Inverse Laplace Transform)
• Impulse Response of 1st Order Systems
• Step Responses of 1st Order Systems
• 1st Order System Identification
• Step Responses of 2nd Order Systems
• Impulse Response of 2nd Order Systems
• Time Domain Performance Criteria
• 2nd Order System Identification
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 Poles and Zeros

• Poles of a Transfer Function: The poles of a

transfer function are (1) the values of the
Laplace transform variable, s, that cause the
transfer function to approach infinity or (2) the
roots of the denominator.
• Zeros of a Transfer Function: The zeros of a
transfer function are (1) the values of the
Laplace transform variable, s, that cause the
transfer function to approach zero or (2) the
roots of the numerator.

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 System Response

System response: The output response

of a system to a change in the input.

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Important Test Input Changes

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 Impulse Response of First Order
Systems
Y (s) K
A first order system is defined as: G  s  
U  s  Ts  1

The transfer function of an impulse change is 1, therefore:

U(S)=1
Then we can get
K
Y  s   G  s  U  s  
Ts  1

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 Impulse Response of First Order
Systems
Using Laplace tables it can be seen that the inverse of this
K t / T
transform is given by:
y t 
T
 e 

t refers to the time since the impulse change occurred.

• After 0 seconds, i.e. immediately after the impulse change, it can be

seen that the output of the system, y(t) is equal to K/T.
• As time goes to infinity the value of y(t) tends towards 0.
• After time T, the system is at 36.8% of K/T,
• At time 2T, the system is at 13.5% of K/T,
• At time 3T, the system is at 5% of K/T and
• At time 4T the system is at 2% of K/T. The time of 4T is often referred
to as the time taken for the system to settle after the input change.

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Impulse Response of First Order
Systems

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Step Response of First Order Systems
1
The transfer function of a step change is U(S)=
s
K K KT
so Y  
s   Y  
s  
s  Ts  1 s Ts  1

Take inverse Laplace Transform, we get y  t   K 1  e
t / T

• This equation states that at time 0, the value of y(t) is
equal to 0 and as time increases to infinity, the value of
y(t) tends to K. K is referred to as the steady state
point.
• y(t) reaches
– 63.2% of K after time T,
– 86.5% of K after time 2T,
– 95.0% of K after time 3T and
– 98.2% of K after time 4T.
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Step Response of First Order Systems

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 First Order Systems Identification

• System Response – Given transfer function to

determine how the system will respond;

• System Identification – Analyse the response of

the system to a change of input and then identify
the transfer function.

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 First Order System Identification from
Step Responses
• Output = ; Transfer function =
• Get K from steady state gain.
• Get T from time at which 63% of gain is achieved
• Check this with initial slope, given by K/T

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 Question 1
Identify the transfer function of the first-order system from
the input and output graphs below.

13
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 Question 1

The gain of the system is equal to the change in output /

change in input, therefore
40  30
K  0.5
50  30
The time constant of the system is equal to the time it takes for the
system to reach 63% of its total change. So T≈10.

0.5
G  s 
10 s  1
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Step Response of Second Order Systems

1
For a step change: U  s  
s
so Y  s   K  n
2

s  s 2  2n s  n 2 
1 A1 A2
Split into partial fractions Y  s    
s s  p1 s  p2
Taking inverse Laplace Transform, we have
y  t   1  A1e  A2e
p1t p2t

p1 and p2 are referred to as poles and are equal to the roots

of the characteristic equation: s  2n s  n  0
2 2

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Step Response of Second Order Systems

The roots of s 2  2n s  n 2  0 are

2n  4 2n 2  4n 2

p1,2   n  n  2  1
2
The coefficients of the partial fractions 1 A1 A2
Y  s   
s s  p1 s  p2
can be calculated as
𝜁
 K K1 K 𝜁 K1
𝐴1 =−
A1   − 𝐴A22= −
2
1 2 2
22√ 𝜁 2−1 √2
 1 22
22 𝜁 −1
There are 3 possible responses of a second order systems.
Each response is dependent upon the form of p1 and p2.

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Step Response of Second Order Systems
2n  4 2n 2  4n 2
p1,2   n  n  2  1
2
ζ > 1 : Two negative real unequal (distinct) roots.

j - Imaginary y  t   1  A1e p1t  A2e p2t

0
Real

Response is overdamped
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Step Response of Second Order Systems
2n  4 2n 2  4n 2
p1,2   n  n   1
2

2
ζ = 1 : Two negative real equal roots.

j - Imaginary y  t   1  A1e p1t  A2e p2t

0
Real

Response is critically damped.

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Step Response of Second Order Systems

2n  4 2n 2  4n 2

p1,2   n  n  2  1
2
0 < ζ < 1 : A pair of complex conjugate roots.

y  t   1  A1e p1t  A2e p2t

j - Imaginary

0
Real

Response is oscillatory or underdamped.

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Step Response of a Second Order System

• When ζ>1 or ζ=1, the system’s step response superficially resembles the
one of a first order system but its initial slope is zero, suggesting the system
to be an overdamped or critically damped second order system.
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Step Response of Second Order Systems
1.8
y (t )
1.6
 = 0.1
 = 0.2
1.4  = 0.3
 = 0.4
 = 0.5
1.2  = 0.6
 = 0.7
 = 0.8
1.0

0.8

0.6
 = 1.0
 = 1.5
0.4  = 2.0

0.2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
n t
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 Impulse Response of Second Order
Systems

For an impulse change: U  s  1

K n 2
Y  s  2
 s  2 n s   n 
2

Splitting into partial fractions: A1 A2

Y  s  
s  p1 s  p2
Taking inverse Laplace Transform

y  t   A1e  A2e
p1t p2 t

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Impulse Response of Second Order
Systems

0<

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Relationship between Poles and System
Response
• The response of a system can be determined by
simply determining the location of the poles. To
summarise:
 If the system contains any poles with complex parts then it
will oscillate.
 If the system contains any poles with positive real part then
the output will tend to +/- infinity and therefore the system is
unstable.
 The closer the poles are to the left hand side of the
imaginary axis, the greater the effect the poles have on the
response of the system. Poles located close to the
imaginary axis (but still to the left of it) are known as
dominant poles.

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Order and Type Number of a System
• The order of a system is equal to the highest
power of derivative in the differential equation
model or the highest power of s in a Laplace
transform model.

• The type number of a system is defined as the

number of poles at the origin of the s-plane
(s=0). It is also equal to the number of pure
integrators (open-loop integrators) in the forward
path of the system.

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 Time Domain Performance Criteria

• Steady-state error
• Rise time
• Peak time
• Maximum overshoot
• Settling time
• Number of oscillations

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 Steady-state Error

• Steady-state error is the difference between the

demand input r(t) and the steady-state output
yss. Given a stable model of the system, this
would normally be found using the final value
theorem.
• Laplace Transform final value theorem:

ess =e    = lim e  t   lim sE  s 

t  s 0

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Steady-state Error in Terms of Gain K

K  Ta s  1  Tb s  1 
...  Tm s  1
G  s  N
s  T1s  1  T2 s  1 ...  Tn s  1

Step input Ramp input Acceleration

1 2
r(t)=1 r(t)=t input r  t  t
2
Type 0 1 ∞ ∞
1 K
Type 1 0 1 ∞
K
Type 2 0 0 1
K
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Response Characteristics

Rise Time, tr: The time taken for the system

to rise from 0 to its steady state value. For
over-damped systems the rise time is taken
as the time to rise from 10% to 90%.
Peak Time, tp: The time taken for the
system to rise to the first peak of the
overshoot.
Maximum Overshoot, Mp: maximum peak
of the response curve from unity.
Settling Time, ts: time required for the
response to reach and stay within a range of
the final value (usually 2 or 5%).

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 Response Characteristics
Peak Time, tp: The time at which the response reaches the
first peak of the overshoot. The peak time occurs when
dy
0
dt
 
tp  
n 1   2 d
where d is called the damped natural frequency.
Maximum Overshoot, Mp: maximum peak of the response
curve from unity. If the final steady-state differs from unity,
then it is common to use the maximum percent overshoot.
yt p   K -(/ 1- 2 ) 
Mp   100%  (e )  100%
K 55-700843 XX 30
 Response Characteristics

Rise Time, tr: For an under-damped system, the rise

time is the time taken for the system to rise from 0 to its
steady-state value.
1 2
  tan 1 ( )

tr 
n 1  2

For over-damped systems the rise time is taken as the

time to rise from 10% to 90% of its steady-state value.

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 Response Characteristics

Settling Time, ts: The settling time can be approximated

to be the time at which any oscillations are insignificant.
This time is normally taken as the time required when the
peak height is within ± 2 ~ 5% of the final value.

ln  x /100 
ts  
n
4
x  2% ts 
 n

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 Underdamped Response Charactersitics

• The damped oscillatory behaviour of the system

corresponds to under-damped behaviour

where ωd is the damped natural frequency .

i. The gain k is the ratio of the steady state step response

to the magnitude of a step input.

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Underdamped Response Characteristics

ii. The damping ratio:

where %OS is the percentage overshoot, which can be

approximated from the plot of the step response.
iii. The natural frequency

where ωd in rad/s which is 2π/Δt where Δt is the time

interval between two consecutive peaks of the step
response plot. If your step response only shows one peak,
then you need to use the peak time*2 for Δt instead.
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Underdamped 2nd Order System Identification
Step Response
3.5

3
RiseTime: 2.42 sec
2.5
SettlingTime: 8 sec
Overshoot: 16.3%
2 PeakTime: 3.7 sec
Amplitude

1.5

1 K=3
ζ = 0.5
0.5
ωn = 1 rad/sec
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (sec)

Y  s K n 2  𝟑
G  s   2 ¿ 𝟐
U ( s ) s  2n s  n 2 𝒔 + 𝒔+𝟏
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End of Lecture.

Any questions?

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