Mitochondria,

Chloroplast
Mitochondria is called the powerhouse of the cell. It was first discovered by
Kolliker in 1880. Benda named it as mitochondria. Mitochondria generate ATP
through electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation.

Occurrence: These occur in all cells except RBCs and prokaryotes. In

prokaryotes, the respiratory enzymes are present on the cell membrane instead.

Mitochondria are distributed throughout the cytoplasm and are localised at the
sites engaged in higher metabolic activities like
- at the base of cilia to provide energy for movement.
- at the light band of muscles to provide energy for contraction.
 Structure
(a) Mitochondrial membranes: +
(i) Outer membrane- It forms an outer boundary through which molecules
can diffuse.
(ii) Inner Membrane: It is projected into the central space in the form of
finger like projections called cristae. The cristae increase the surface
area and provide abundant space for metabolism. This membrane is
selectively permeable. The inner membrane contains all the enzymes
of electron transport chain. It is studded with numerous stalked bodies
known as elementary particles. The inner membrane encloses the
mitochondrial matrix.
(b) Mitochondrial Chambers:
(i) Outer Chamber: It is intermembranous i.e. the space between the
outer and inner membranes of mitochondria, extending into the core of crests
also. It is 60-100 Å wide. It contains enzymes adenylate kinase and
nucleoside diphosphokinase.
(ii) Inner chamber- It is the space enclosed by the inner membrane. It is
a wide space and is called matrix. It is dense and filled with enzymes, a
circular double stranded DNA molecule, many small ribosomes, enzymes
controlling TCA or Krebs cycle and fatty acid oxidation.
Mitochondrial ribosomes are smaller than the cytoplasmic ribosomes and
are similar to bacterial ribosomes in number and character(like
composition of sub units).
 Elementary Particle
These are stalked particles present on the
inner membrane. These are approximately 8.5
nm in diameter and are evenly spaced at an
interval of 100 nm. These are differentiated
into a base piece (F0- subunit), stalk and a
head (F1 –subunit). There may be 10 4- 10 5
particles per mitochondria. They are called
elementary particles and are associated with
ATP production.
The head piece (F1) is associated with ATP
synthesis. The base piece (F0) lies where there
are components of respiratory chain(ETC)
itself. The F0-F1 combination brings about the
formation of ATP molecules by oxidative
phosphorylation.
 Functions of Mitochondria

1.Act as sites of respiration(Krebs Cycle). Contain all the enzymes

which bring about oxidative phosphorylation i.e. formation of ATP
which is required for all activities of the body. Help in yolk
formation during the development of ovum.
2.Form middle piece of sperm during sperm maturation.
3.Help in the elongation of fatty acids.
 Mitochondria as semi-autonomous organelles
• The mitochondrial DNA carries enough information for the synthesis of
about 30 proteins only but that is not enough to make a new mitochondrion.
So the mitochondrion depends on nuclear DNA, cytoplasmic enzymes and
other molecules of the cell. Using all this machinery mitochondria replicates.
• During cell division, each daughter cell inherits mitochondria from the
mother cell and these replicate to restore the normal number in the cell.
Multiplication of mitochondria is by binary fission- again prokaryotic
bacterial character.
• As the mitochondria have DNA and can replicate themselves but are
dependent on nuclear DNA for some proteins, they are semi-autonomous.
• Another important feature is their character of changing structure. This is
dependent upon:
- the physiological activity of the cell as well as
- the activity occurring in the organelle,
- Accordingly mitochondria can be seen in two states:
(i) Inactive or orthodox state: It is a stage when ATP concentration is low or
the respiratory chain is inhibited. In such a state, the mitochondrion are in an
inactive or orthodox state. At this stage the matrix of mitochondrion occupies a
larger area.
(ii) Active or condensed state: It is when mitochondria are actively engaged
in photo-phosphorylation and electron transport. The cristae are more randomly
distributed and intermembrane space remain highly enlarged.
 PLASTIDS
Plastids are organelles which are found in plant cells and some unicellular organisms like Euglena. They are surrounded
by two membranes and develop from small bodies called proplastids found in the meristematic regions. Plastids are of
various types:
Types Of Plastids:
Depending upon the nature of pigments, they are of 3 types:
(i) Chloroplasts (ii) Chromoplasts (iii) Leucoplasts

Comparison amongst chloroplast, chromoplasts and

leucoplasts:
Chloroplasts
(i) Perform photosynthesis
(ii) Contain chlorophyll(green
pigment) and carotenoid pigments
(iii) Found mainly in leaves and
green stem. They trap light energy for (Carotenoids also act as precursors of roots , seeds and young leaves eg.,
photosynthesis.
Chromoplasts Leucoplasts
(i) Non-photosynthetic (i) Non-photosynthetic
(ii) Contain fat soluble carotenoid (ii) Colourless as they lack any
pigments like carotene and pigment
xanthophyll. They have red, orange
or yellow pigments(other than green
chlorophyll pigment)
(iii) Give colour to fruits and flowers. (iii) Abundant in storage organs like
vitamin A in animal tissues) amyloplasts store starch, elaioplasts
store oil and fats and aleuroplasts
store proteins.
 Structure of Plastids

(i) The plastids are bound by two membranes

(ii)Plastids contain their own genetic material(DNA) and protein
synthesising machinery like RNA and ribosomes.
(iii)They are capable of multiplication by fission–like process.
Chloroplasts:
Shape: Biconvex and circular – Higher Plants
Spiral- Spirogyra
Cup shaped – Chlamydomonas
Size: They are about 3-10 µm in diameter.
Number: A leaf parenchyma cell may contain 20-40 chloroplasts and
an alga may have one huge chloroplast. It varies from cell to cell and
depends on the physiological state of the cell.
 Structure of Chloroplast
Each chloroplast is surrounded by two membranes which form the chloroplast
envelope.
- The outer membrane is smooth and regulates the transport of material between
the interior of organelle and the cytoplasm.
- The inner membrane runs parallel to the outer one and is exclusively folded
inwards. The foldings form a series of parallel membranous sheets called
lamellae.
• The membranes enclose a fluid-filled space called matrix or stroma in which
is suspended a system of membranes.
• The membrane system consists of many flattened, fluid filled sacs called
thylakoids. At intervals these thylakoids are stacked like a a pile of coins
forming grana. Each grana is 0.2-0.6 µm in diameter and there are about 40-
100 grana in each chloroplast. Each grana may have 2-100 small flattened
thylakoids.
Various grana are joined together by thylakoids called intergranal lamellae or
stroma lamellae. All the membranes have a unit membrane structure.
• The grana and the membrane system is the site of light reaction in
photosynthesis. The membranes are covered with chlorophyll, other pigments
carotenoids, enzymes and electron carrier(like plastoquinones).
• The stroma is gel-like, containing soluble enzymes of dark reaction. It
contains a small circular double helical DNA , ribosomes, 50% soluble
proteins, chemicals like sugars, organic acids and products of photosynthesis
in the form of starch grains.
 Function of Chloroplast

The most important function of chloroplast is photosynthesis, i.e. to trap the radiant energy of sunlight and
transform it into chemical energy which is stored in the form of starch in plant cells. It involves two processes –
light reaction in membrane system and dark reaction in stroma.
Similarities between mitochondria and chloroplasts
1. Both are semiautonomous organelles as they both contain DNA, RNA and ribosomes.
2. Both mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA and chloroplast(cpDNA) are circular in shape.
3. The genetic information contained in mtDNA and cpDNA is limited.
4. Both contain specific genes related to some of their functions, but both depend on
nuclear genes for other functions.
5. Both originate and develop in the same way. They are formed by division pre-existing
organelles. A eukaryotic cell doesn’t produce new mitochondria or chloroplasts each
time the cell divides. Instead mitochondria and chloroplasts themselves divide in two,
doubling their number and these are then partitioned between the new cells.
6. By the symbiont hypothesis, there are many similarities between prokaryotes and
mitochondria and chloroplasts. They are similar to the prokaryotes in following ways:
- By the presence of circular DNA
-Circular DNA not associated with histones.
-Presence of 70S ribosomes(eukaryotes have 80S ribosomes)
7. It is postulated that they both may have existed as independent organisms in the past .
During evolution, they developed a symbiotic relationship with plant and animal cells and
evolved into their present state.
Differences between chloroplasts and mitochondria

Chloroplasts Mitochondria

(i) Sites of photosynthesis and are known as (i) Sites of aerobic respiration and are
photosynthetic organelles of the cell. known as power houses of the cell.

(ii) Present in plant cells only(green parts of (ii) Present in all cells in both animal and
the plant) plants.

(iii) Contain chlorophyll and impart green (iii) Contain enzymes for oxidation of food.
colour to the plant Do not impart any colour.