Modeling: Forced Oscillations. Resonance: Section 2.8 p1

2.
8
Modeling: Forced
Oscillations. Resonance
Section 2.8 p1 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
2.8 Modeling: Forced Oscillations. Resonance
In Sec. 2.4 we considered vertical motions of a mass–spring

system (vibration of a mass m on an elastic spring, as in Figs.
33 and 53) and modeled it by the homogeneous linear ODE
(1) my” + cy’ + ky = 0.
Here y(t) as a function of time t is the
displacement of the body of mass m
from rest.
Fig. 53. Mass on a spring

The mass–spring system of Sec. 2.4 exhibited only free motion.

This means no external forces (outside forces) but only
internal forces controlled the motion.
The internal forces are forces within the system. They are the
force of inertia my”, the damping force cy’ (if c > 0), and the
spring force ky, a restoring force.

We now extend our model by including an additional force,

that is, the external force r(t), on the right. Then we have
(2*) my” + cy’ + ky = r(t).
Mechanically this means that at each instant t the resultant of
the internal forces is in equilibrium with r(t).
The resulting motion is called a forced motion with forcing
function r(t), which is also known as input or driving force,
and the solution y(t) to be obtained is called the output or the
response of the system to the driving force.

Of special interest are periodic external forces, and we shall

consider a driving force of the form
r(t) = F0 cos ωt (F0 > 0, ω > 0).
Then we have the nonhomogeneous ODE
(2) my” + cy’ + ky = F0 cos ωt.
Its solution will reveal facts that are fundamental in
engineering mathematics and allow us to model resonance.

Solving the Nonhomogeneous ODE (2)

From Sec. 2.7 we know that a general solution of (2) is the
sum of a general solution yh of the homogeneous ODE (1)
plus any solution yp of (2). To find yp, we use the method
of undetermined coefficients (Sec. 2.7), starting from
(3) yp(t) = a cos ωt + b sin ωt.
k  m 2 c
a  F0 2 2 2
, b  F0 2 2 2
.
( k  m )   c ( k  m )   c

Find the coeficients a and b
k  m 2 c
a  F0 2 2 2
, b  F0 2 2 2
.
( k  m )   c ( k  m )   c
Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Solving the Nonhomogeneous ODE (2) (continued)

If we set k / m  0 (  0) as in Sec. 2.4, then k  m0 2 and
we obtain
m(0 2   2 ) c
(5) a  F0 2 2 2 2 2
, b  F0 2 2 2 2 2
.
m (0   )   c m (0   )   c
We thus obtain the general solution of the
nonhomogeneous ODE (2) in the form
(6) y(t) = yh(t) + yp(t).
Here yh is a general solution of the homogeneous ODE (1)
and yp is given by (3) with coefficients (5).

Case 1. Undamped Forced Oscillations.

Resonance
If the damping of the physical system is so small that its
effect can be neglected over the time interval considered,
we can set c = 0. Then (5) reduces to a = F0/[m(ω02 − ω2)] and
b = 0 Hence (3) becomes (use ω02 = k/m)
F0 F0
(7) y p (tt)  2 2
cos   2
cos t.
m(0   ) k[1  ( / 0 ) ]
Here we must assume that ω2 ≠ ω02; physically, the
frequency ω/(2π) [cycles/sec] of the driving force is
different from the natural frequency ω0/(2π) of the system,
which is the frequency of the free undamped motion
[see (4) in Sec. 2.4].

Resonance (continued 1)
From (7) and from (4*) in Sec. 2.4 we have the general
solution of the “undamped system”
F0
(8) y(t )  C cos (0tt  )  2 2
cos  .
m(0   )
We see that this output is a superposition of two harmonic
oscillations of the frequencies just mentioned.

Resonance. We discuss (7). We see that the maximum
amplitude of yp is (put cos ωt = 1)
F0 1
(9) a0   where   2
.
k 1  ( / 0 )
a0 depends on ω and ω0. If ω → ω0 , then ρ and a0 tend to
infinity. This excitation of large oscillations by matching
input and natural frequencies (ω = ω0) is called resonance. ρ
is called the resonance factor (Fig. 54), and from (9) we see
that ρ /k = a0/F0 is the ratio of the amplitudes of the
particular solution yp and of the input F0 cos ωt. We shall
see later in this section that resonance is of basic
importance in the study of vibrating systems.
Resonance. (continued)
Fig. 54. Resonance factor ρ(ω)


In the case of resonance the nonhomogeneous ODE (2)
becomes
F0
(10) y  0 y  cos 0 t.
2
m
Then (7) is no longer valid, and from the Modification Rule
in Sec. 2.7, we conclude that a particular solution of (10) is
of the form
yp(t) = t(a cos ω0t + b sin ω0t).


By substituting this into (10) we find a = 0 and
b = F0/(2mω0). Hence (Fig. 55)
F0
(11) y p (tt)  sin 0t.
2 m0


Fig. 55. Particular solution

in the case of resonance
We see that, because of the factor t, the amplitude of the

vibration becomes larger and larger. Practically speaking,
systems with very little damping may undergo large
vibrations that can destroy the system.
Beats. Another interesting and highly important type of
oscillation is obtained if ω is close to ω0. Take, for example,
the particular solution [see (8)]
F0
(12) y(tt)  2 2
(cos   cos 0 t ) (  0 ).
m(0   )
Using (12) in App. 3.1, we may write this as
2 F0 0   0  
y(tt)  2 2
sin( )sin( t ).
m(0   ) 2 2

Beats. (continued)
Since is ω close to ω0, the difference ω0 − ω is small. Hence
the period of the last sine function is large, and we obtain
an oscillation of the type shown in Fig. 56, the dashed curve
resulting from the first sine factor. This is what musicians
are listening to when they tune their instruments.

Beats. (continued)
Fig. 56. Forced undamped oscillation when the difference of the input
and natural frequencies is small (“beats”)

Case 2. Damped Forced Oscillations

If the damping of the mass–spring system is not negligibly
small, we have c > 0 and a damping term cy’ in (1) and (2).
Then the general solution yh of the homogeneous ODE (1)
approaches zero as t goes to infinity, as we know from
Sec. 2.4.
Practically, it is zero after a sufficiently long time.
Hence the “transient solution” (6) of (2), given by
y = yh + yp, approaches the “steady-state solution” yp.
This proves the following theorem.

THEOREM 1
Steady-State Solution
After a sufficiently long time the output of a damped vibrating
system under a purely sinusoidal driving force [see (2)] will
practically be a harmonic oscillation whose frequency is that of the
input.

Amplitude of the Steady-State Solution.

Practical Resonance
Whereas in the undamped case the amplitude of yp
approaches infinity as ω approaches ω0, this will not happen
in the damped case. In this case the amplitude will always be
finite. But it may have a maximum for some ω depending on
the damping constant c.
This may be called practical resonance.
It is of great importance because if c is not too large, then
some input may excite oscillations large enough to damage or
even destroy the system.

To study the amplitude of yp as a function of ω, we write (3) in

the form
(13) yp(t) = C* cos (ωt − η).
C* is called the amplitude of yp and η the phase angle or
phase lag because it measures the lag of the output behind the
input. According to (5), these quantities are
2 2 F0
C * ( )  a  b 
m 2 (0 2   2 )2   2 c 2
(14)
b c
tan ( )   2 2
.
a m(0   )

2 mF0
(16) C * (max ) 
c 4 m 20 2  c 2
We see that C*(ωmax) is always finite when c > 0.
Furthermore, since the expression
c24m2ω02 − c4 = c2(4mk − c2)
in the denominator of (16) decreases monotone to zero as c2
(<2mk) goes to zero, the maximum amplitude (16) increases
monotone to infinity, in agreement with our result in Case 1.
Figure 57 shows the amplification C*/F0 (ratio of the
amplitudes of output and input) as a function of ω for
m = 1, k = 1, hence ω0 = 1, and various values of the damping
constant c.

Figure 58 shows the phase angle (the lag of the output behind
the input), which is less than π/2 when ω < ω0, and greater
than π/2 for ω > ω0.
Fig. 57. Amplification C*/F0 as a function Fig. 58. Phase lag η as a function of of ω
for m = 1, k = 1 and various ω for m = 1, k = 1 thus ω0 = 1, and
values of the damping constant c various values of the damping
constant c
2.9 Modeling: Electric Circuits

Figure 61 shows an RLC-circuit, as it occurs as a basic

building block of large electric networks in computers and
elsewhere.
An RLC-circuit is obtained from an RL-circuit by adding a
capacitor. Recall Example 2 on the RL-circuit in Sec. 1.5: The
model of the RL-circuit is LI’ + RI = E(t). It was obtained by
KVL (Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law)* by equating the voltage
drops across the resistor and the inductor to the EMF
(electromotive force).
*Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL):

At any point of a circuit, the sum of the inflowing currents is equal
to the sum of the outflowing currents.

Hence we obtain the model of the RLC-circuit simply by

adding the voltage drop Q/C across the capacitor.
Here, C F(farads) is the capacitance of the capacitor.
Q coulombs is the charge on the capacitor, related to the
current by
dQ
I (t )  , equivalently Q(t )   I (t )dt.
dt

See also Fig. 62. Assuming a sinusoidal

EMF as in Fig. 61, we thus have the
model of the RLC-circuit
Fig. 61. RLC-circuit
Fig. 62. Elements in an RLC-circuit

(1’) 1
C 
LI   RI 
I dt  E(t )  E0 sin t.
This is an “integro-differential equation.” To get rid of the
integral, we differentiate (1’) with respect to t, obtaining
1
(1) LI  RI  I  E(t )  E0 cos t.
 
C
This shows that the current in an RLC-circuit is obtained as
the solution of this nonhomogeneous second-order ODE (1)
with constant coefficients. In connection with initial value
problems, we shall occasionally use
(1”) 1
LQ  RQ  Q  E(t ).
C
obtained from (1’) and I = Q’.

Solving the ODE (1) for the Current

in an RLC-Circuit
A general solution of (1) is the sum I = Ih + Ip , where Ih is a
general solution of the homogeneous ODE corresponding
to (1) and is a particular solution of (1).
We first determine Ip by the method of undetermined
coefficients, proceeding as in the previous section. We
substitute
(2) Ip = a cos ωt + b sin ωt
Ip’ = ω(−a sin ωt + b cos ωt)
Ip” = ω2(−a cos ωt − b sin ωt)
into (1).


in an RLC-Circuit (continued 1)
Then we collect the cosine terms and equate them to
E0ω cos ωt on the right, and we equate the sine terms to
zero because there is no sine term on the right,
Lω2(−a) + Rωb + a/C = E0ω (Cosine terms)
Lω2(−b) + Rω(−a) + b/C = 0 (Sine terms).
Before solving this system for a and b, we first introduce a
combination of L and C, called the reactance
1
S  L  .
(3) C


We can solve for a and b,
 E0S E0S
(4) a 2 2
, b 2 2
.
R S R S
Equation (2) with coefficients a and b given by (4) is the
desired particular solution Ip of the nonhomogeneous
ODE (1) governing the current I in an RLC-circuit with
sinusoidal electromotive force.

Using (4), we can write Ip in terms of “physically visible”
quantities, namely, amplitude I0 and phase lag θ of the
current behind the EMF, that is,
(5) Ip(t) = I0 sin (ωt − θ)
where [see (14) in App. A3.1]
2 2 E0 a S
I0  a  b  , tan    = .
2
R S 2 b R
The quantity R2  S2
is called the impedance. Our
formula shows that the impedance equals the ratio E0/I0.
This is somewhat analogous to E/I = R (Ohm’s law), and
because of this analogy, the impedance is also known
as Section
the apparent
2.9 p35
resistance.Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
A general solution of the homogeneous equation
corresponding to (1) is
I h  c1e 1tt  c2 e 2
where λ1 and λ2 are the roots of the characteristic equation
R 1
2    0.
L LC

We can write these roots in the form λ1 = −α + β and
λ2 = −α − β, where
R R2 1 1 2 4L
 ,  2
  R  .
2L 4 L LC 2 L C
Now in an actual circuit, R is never zero (hence R > 0).
From this it follows that Ih approaches zero, theoretically
t → ∞, as but practically after a relatively short time.
Hence the transient current I = Ih + Ip tends to the steady-
state current Ip, and after some time the output will
practically be a harmonic oscillation, which is given by (5)
and whose frequency is that of the input (of the
electromotive force).
Analogy of Electrical
and Mechanical Quantities
Entirely different physical or other systems may have the
same mathematical model. For instance, we have seen this
from the various applications of the ODE y’ = ky in Chap. 1.
Another impressive demonstration of this unifying power
of mathematics is given by the ODE (1) for an electric RLC-
circuit and the ODE (2) in the last section for a mass–spring
system. Both equations
1
LI   RI   I  E(t )  E0 cos t
C
and my” + cy’ + ky = F0 cos ωt
are of the same form.

and Mechanical Quantities (continued 1)
Table 2.2 shows the analogy between the various quantities
involved. The inductance L corresponds to the mass m and,
indeed, an inductor opposes a change in current, having an
“inertia effect” similar to that of a mass. The resistance R
corresponds to the damping constant c, and a resistor
causes loss of energy, just as a damping dashpot does. And
so on.
This analogy is strictly quantitative in the sense that
to a given mechanical system we can construct an electric
circuit whose current will give the exact values of the
displacement in the mechanical system when suitable scale
factors are introduced.

The practical importance of this analogy is almost
obvious. The analogy may be used for constructing an
“electrical model” of a given mechanical model, resulting
in substantial savings of time and money because electric
circuits are easy to assemble, and electric quantities can be
measured much more quickly and accurately than
mechanical ones.


2.10 Solution by Variation
of Parameters

2.10 Solution by Variation of Parameters
We continue our discussion of nonhomogeneous linear ODEs,

that is
(1) y” + p(x)y’ + q(x)y = r(x).
To obtain yp when r(x) is not too complicated, we can often use
the method of undetermined coefficients.
However, since this method is restricted to functions r(x)
whose derivatives are of a form similar to r(x) itself (powers,
exponential functions, etc.), it is desirable to have a method
valid for more general ODEs (1), which we shall now develop.
It is called the method of variation of parameters and is
credited to Lagrange (Sec. 2.1). Here p, q, r in (1) may be
variable (given functions of x), but we assume that they are
continuous on some open interval I.

Lagrange’s method gives a particular solution yp of (1) on I

in the form
y2 r y1r
(2) y p ( x)   y1  dx  y2  dx
W W
where y1, y2 form a basis of solutions of the corresponding
homogeneous ODE
(3) y” + p(x)y’ + q(x)y = 0
on I, and W is the Wronskian of y1, y2.
(4) W = y1y2’ − y2y1’ (see Sec. 2.6).

EXAMPLE 1
Method of Variation of Parameters
Solve the nonhomogeneous ODE
1

y  y  sec x  .
cos x
Solution. A basis of solutions of the homogeneous ODE on
any interval is y1 = cos x, y2 = sin x. This gives the
Wronskian
W( y1, y2) = cos x cos x − sin x (−sin x) = 1.
From (2), choosing zero constants of integration, we get the
particular solution of the given ODE
y p   cos x  sin x sec x dx  sin x  cos x sec x dx
 cos x ln cos x  x sin x
(Fig.
70)Section 2.10 p45 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
EXAMPLE 1 (continued)
Solution. (continued 1)
Figure 70 shows yp and its first term, which is small, so that
x sin x essentially determines the shape of the curve
of yp. From yp and the general solution yh = c1y1 + c2y2 of the
homogeneous ODE we obtain the answer
y = yh + yp = (c1 + ln|cos x|) cos x + (c2 + x) sin x.
Had we included integration constants −c1, c2 in (2),
then (2) would have given the additional
c1cos x + c2sin x = c1y1 + c2y2, that is, a general solution of the
given ODE directly from (2). This will always be the case.

EXAMPLE 1 (continued)
Solution. (continued 2)
Fig. 70. Particular solution yp

and its first term in Example 1

2
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER
Second-Order ODEs
Section 2.Summary p48 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 2
Second-Order ODEs
Second-order linear ODEs are particularly important in
applications, for instance, in mechanics (Secs. 2.4, 2.8) and
electrical engineering (Sec. 2.9). A second-order ODE is
called linear if it can be written
(1) y” + p(x)y’ + q(x)y = r(x) (Sec. 2.1).
(If the first term is, say, f(x)y”, divide by f(x) to get the
“standard form” (1) with y” as the first term.) Equation (1)
is called homogeneous if r(x) is zero for all x considered,
usually in some open interval; this is written r ≡ 0. Then
(2) y” + p(x)y’ + q(x)y = 0
Equation (1) is called nonhomogeneous if r(x) ≡ 0 (meaning
r(x) is not zero for some x considered).

(continued 1) Second-Order ODEs
For the homogeneous ODE (2) we have the important
superposition principle (Sec. 2.1) that a linear combination
y = ky1 + ly2 of two solutions y1, y2 is again a solution.
Two linearly independent solutions y1, y2 of (2) on an open
interval I form a basis (or fundamental system) of solutions
on I, and y = c1y1 + c2y2 with arbitrary constants c1, c2 a
general solution of (2) on I. From it we obtain a particular
solution if we specify numeric values (numbers) for c1 and
c2, usually by prescribing two initial conditions
(3) y(x0) = K0, y’(x0) = K1 (x0, K0, K1 given
numbers; Sec. 2.1).
(2) and (3) together form an initial value problem. Similarly
for (1) and (3).
For a nonhomogeneous ODE (1) a general solution is of
the form
(4) y = yh + yp (Sec. 2.7).
Here yh is a general solution of (2) and yp is a particular
solution of (1). Such a yp can be determined by a general
method (variation of parameters, Sec. 2.10) or in many
practical cases by the method of undetermined coefficients.
The latter applies when (1) has constant coefficients p and q,
and r(x) is a power of x, sine, cosine, etc. (Sec. 2.7). Then we
write (1) as
(5) y” + ay’ + by = r(x) (Sec. 2.7).
The corresponding homogeneous ODE y’ + ay’ + by = 0 has
solutions y = eλx where λ is a root of
(6)Section 2.Summary
λ2 + aλp51+ b = 0. Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Hence there are three cases (Sec. 2.2):
Here ω* is used since ω is needed in driving forces.

Important applications of (5) in mechanical and electrical
engineering in connection with vibrations and resonance
are discussed in Secs. 2.4, 2.7, and 2.8.

Another large class of ODEs solvable “algebraically”
consists of the Euler–Cauchy equations
(7) x2y” + axy’ + by = 0 (Sec. 2.5).
These have solutions of the form y = xm, where m is a
solution of the auxiliary equation
(8) m2 + (a − 1)m + b = 0.
Existence and uniqueness of solutions of (1) and (2) is
discussed in Secs. 2.6 and 2.7, and reduction of order
in Sec. 2.1.

CHAPTER 6
Laplace Transforms
Chapter 6 p54 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

6.0 Laplace Transforms
The process of solving an ODE using the Laplace transform

method consists of three steps, shown schematically in
Fig. 113:
Step 1. The given ODE is transformed into an algebraic
equation, called the subsidiary equation.
Step 2. The subsidiary equation is solved by purely
algebraic manipulations.
Step 3. The solution in Step 2 is transformed back, resulting
in the solution of the given problem.
Fig. 113. Solving an IVP by Laplace transforms

6.0 Laplace Transforms
The key motivation for learning about Laplace transforms is that

the process of solving an ODE is simplified to an algebraic
problem (and transformations). This type of mathematics that
converts problems of calculus to algebraic problems is known
as operational calculus. The Laplace transform method has two
main advantages over the methods discussed in Chaps. 1–4:
I. Problems are solved more directly: Initial value problems are
solved without first determining a general solution.
Nonhomogenous ODEs are solved without first solving the
corresponding homogeneous ODE.
II. More importantly, the use of the unit step function (Heaviside
function in Sec. 6.3) and Dirac’s delta (in Sec. 6.4) make the
method particularly powerful for problems with inputs
(driving forces) that have discontinuities or represent short
impulses or complicated periodic functions.

Laplace Transform. Linearity.

Integral transformation is the transformation of one
function f(t) to another function F(s). The function
K(s, t) is called kernel or weight function. s in general
belongs to the set of complex numbers.
If the direct transformation is 1-1 then the inverse transformation exists

and we can symbolically write

6.1 Laplace Transform. Linearity. First Shifting Theorem (s-Shifting)
If f(t) is a function defined for all t ≥ 0, its Laplace transform

is the integral of f(t) times e−st from t = 0 to ∞. It is a
function of s, say, F(s), and is denoted by L(f); thus

(1) F( s)  L ( f )   e  st f (t )dt.
0
Here we must assume that f(t) is such that the integral exists
(that is, has some finite value). This assumption is
usually satisfied in applications—we shall discuss this
near the end of the section.

Not only is the result F(s) called the Laplace transform, but
the operation just described, which yields F(s) from a
given f(t), is also called the Laplace transform. It is an
“integral transform”

F( s)   k( s , t ) f (t ) dt
0
with “kernel” k(s, t) = e−st.
Note that the Laplace transform is called an integral

transform because it transforms (changes) a function in
one space to a function in another space by a process of
integration that involves a kernel. The kernel or kernel
function is a function of the variables in the two spaces
and defines the integral transform.
Furthermore, the given function f(t) in (1) is called the

inverse transform of F(s) and is denoted by L −1(f);
that is, we shall write
(1*) f(t) = L −1(F).
Note that (1) and (1*) together imply L −1(L (f)) = f and
L (L −1(F)) = F .

Notation
Original functions depend on t and their transforms on s—
keep this in mind! Original functions are denoted by
lowercase letters and their transforms by the same letters in
capital, so that F(s) denotes the transform of f(t), and Y(s)
denotes the transform of y(t), and so on.

Theorem 1
Linearity of the Laplace Transform
The Laplace transform is a linear operation; that is, for any
functions f(t) and g(t) whose transforms exist and any constants
a and b the transform of af(t) + bg(t) exists, and
L ｛ af(t) + bg(t) ｝ = aL {f (t)} + bL {g(t)}.

proof

Table 6.1 Some Functions ƒ(t) and Their Laplace Transforms L(ƒ)

Not all functions have an Inverse Laplace transformation.
Examples: s, s^2, sin(s). There is no function f(t) such that
L(f(t)) is equal to them.

68
Existence Theorem for Laplace Transforms
One function is called exponential of alpha or gamma order if

there are constant values M and γ=α such that
The function is exponential of order 2
Thus the inequality holds for

η ανισότητα &

69
Existence and Uniqueness of Laplace Transforms
This then gives finite jumps as in Fig. 115 as the only

possible discontinuities, but this suffices in most
applications, and so does the following theorem.
Fig. 115. Example of a piecewise continuous function f(t).

(The dots mark the function values at the jumps.)
• Existence theorem or growth restriction
criterion

71
Proof

72
(continued)

73

Modeling: Forced Oscillations. Resonance: Section 2.8 p1

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Modeling: Forced Oscillations. Resonance: Section 2.8 p1

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Section 2.8 p1 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

In Sec. 2.4 we considered vertical motions of a mass–spring

Fig. 53. Mass on a spring

Section 2.8 p2 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

The mass–spring system of Sec. 2.4 exhibited only free motion.

Section 2.8 p3 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

We now extend our model by including an additional force,

Section 2.8 p4 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Of special interest are periodic external forces, and we shall

Section 2.8 p5 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Solving the Nonhomogeneous ODE (2)

Section 2.8 p6 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Solving the Nonhomogeneous ODE (2) (continued)

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Case 1. Undamped Forced Oscillations.

Case 1. Undamped Forced Oscillations.

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Fig. 54. Resonance factor ρ(ω)

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Case 1. Undamped Forced Oscillations.

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Case 1. Undamped Forced Oscillations.

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Case 1. Undamped Forced Oscillations.

Fig. 55. Particular solution

We see that, because of the factor t, the amplitude of the

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Case 2. Damped Forced Oscillations

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Amplitude of the Steady-State Solution.

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To study the amplitude of yp as a function of ω, we write (3) in

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Figure 61 shows an RLC-circuit, as it occurs as a basic

*Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL):

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Hence we obtain the model of the RLC-circuit simply by

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See also Fig. 62. Assuming a sinusoidal

Fig. 61. RLC-circuit

Fig. 62. Elements in an RLC-circuit

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Solving the ODE (1) for the Current

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Solving the ODE (1) for the Current

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Solving the ODE (1) for the Current

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are of the same form.

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