Electronics Fundamentals: Circuits, Devices, and Applications

electronics fundamentals
circuits, devices, and applications
THOMAS L. FLOYD
DAVID M. BUCHLA
chapter 9
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Floyd/Buchla River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 9
The Basic Capacitor

Capacitors are one of the fundamental passive
components. In its most basic form, it is composed of
two conductive plates separated by an insulating
dielectric.
The ability to store charge is the definition of
capacitance.
Conductors Dielectric

Chapter 9
The Basic Capacitor

VVSS Die le c tric
The charging ++
+++


process… Le a d s +++ ++
+++  Pla te s
++ 
+++ +
 +
Initially
Source
Fully
Charging
charged
removed
uncharged   ++
+
 


 ++ + 
+ +  Ele c tro n s
++ 

+ 
+ +  B
+ 
 AAA + BB
   +    
A capacitor with stored charge can act as a temporary battery.

Chapter 9
Capacitance
Capacitance is the ratio of charge to voltage
Q
C
V
Rearranging, the amount of charge on a
capacitor is determined by the size of the
capacitor (C) and the voltage (V).
Q  CV
If a 22 F capacitor is connected to
a 10 V source, the charge is 220 C

Chapter 9
Capacitance
An analogy:
Imagine you store rubber bands in a
bottle that is nearly full.
You could store more rubber bands
(like charge or Q) in a bigger bottle
(capacitance or C) or if you push
them in more (voltage or V). Thus,
Q  CV

Chapter 9
Capacitance
A capacitor stores energy in the form of an electric field
that is established by the opposite charges on the two
plates. The energy of a charged capacitor is given by the
equation
1
W CV 2
2
where
W = the energy in joules
C = the capacitance in farads
V = the voltage in volts

Chapter 9
Capacitance
The capacitance of a capacitor depends on
three physical characteristics.
 A
C  8.85  1012 F/m  r 
 d 
C is directly proportional to
the relative dielectric constant
and the plate area.
C is inversely proportional to
the distance between the plates

Chapter 9
Capacitance
Find the capacitance of a 4.0 cm diameter
sensor immersed in oil if the plates are
separated by 0.25 mm.  r  4.0 for oil 
 r A 
12
C  8.85  10 F/m  
 d 
2 2
 3
The plate area is A  πr   0.02 m  1.26 10 m
2

3
The distance between the plates is 0.25  10 m
  4.0  1.26 10 3 m 2  
C  8.85  1012 F/m    178 pF
 0.25  103 m 
 
Chapter 9
Capacitor types
Mica
Mica capacitors are small with high working voltage.
The working voltage is the voltage limit that cannot
be exceeded.
Fo il
Mic a
Fo il
Mic a
Fo il
Mic a
Fo il

Chapter 9
Capacitor types
Ceramic disk
Ceramic disks are small nonpolarized capacitors They
have relatively high capacitance due to high r.
Le a d wire so ld e re d
to silve r e le c tro d e
So ld e r
Dip p e d p h e n o lic c o a tin g

C e ra m ic
d ie le c tric Silv e r e le c tro d e s d e p o site d o n
to p a n d b o tto m o f c e ra m ic d isk

Chapter 9
Capacitor types
Plastic Film
Plastic film capacitors are small and nonpolarized. They
have relatively high capacitance due to larger plate area.
Hig h -p u rity
fo il e le c tro d e s
Pla stic film

d ie le c tric
O u te r wra p o f
p o lye ste r film
C a p a c ito r se c tio n
(a lte rn a te strip s o f
film d ie le c tric a n d
Le a d wire fo il e le c tro d e s)
So ld e r c o a te d e n d

Chapter 9
Capacitor types
Electrolytic (two types)
Electrolytic capacitors have very high capacitance but
they are not as precise as other types and tend to have
more leakage current. Electrolytic types are polarized.
_
Al electrolytic
Ta electrolytic
Symbol for any electrolytic capacitor

Chapter 9
Capacitor types
Variable
Variable capacitors typically have small capacitance
values and are usually adjusted manually.
A solid-state device that is used as a variable
capacitor is the varactor diode; it is adjusted with an
electrical signal.

Chapter 9
Capacitor labeling
Capacitors use several labeling methods. Small
capacitors values are frequently stamped on them such
as .001 or .01, which have implied units of microfarads.
Electrolytic capacitors have larger
47VTTMFVTT
values, so are read as F. The unit is usually
+ ++ +
stamped as F, but some older ones may be
shown as MF or MMF).
. 022

Chapter 9
Capacitor labeling
A label such as 103 or 104 is read as 10x103
(10,000 pF) or 10x104 (100,000 pF)
respectively. (Third digit is the multiplier.)
When values are marked as 330 or 6800, the
units are picofarads.
222 2 20 0
What is the value of

each capacitor? Both are 2200 pF.

Chapter 9
Series capacitors
When capacitors are connected in series, the total
capacitance is smaller than the smallest one. The
general equation for capacitors in series is
1
CT 
1 1 1 1
   ... 
C1 C2 C3 CT
The total capacitance of two capacitors is
1
CT 
1 1

C1 C2
…or you can use the product-over-sum rule
Chapter 9
Series capacitors
If a 0.001 F capacitor is connected

in series with an 800 pF capacitor,
the total capacitance is 444 pF
C1 C2
0.001 µ F 800 pF

Chapter 9
Parallel capacitors
When capacitors are connected in parallel, the total
capacitance is the sum of the individual capacitors.
The general equation for capacitors in parallel is
CT  C1  C2  C3  ...Cn
If a 0.001 F capacitor is
C1 C2
connected in parallel with
an 800 pF capacitor, the 0.001 µ F 800 pF
total capacitance is 1800 pF

Chapter 9
Vfin a l
The RC time constant

When a capacitor is charged
through a series resistor and 0 t
dc source, the charging curve (a ) C a p a c ito r c ha rg ing vo lta g e
is exponential.
R Iin itia l
0 t
(b ) C ha rg ing c urre nt

Chapter 9
V in itia l
When a capacitor is discharged
through a resistor, the
0 t
discharge curve is also an ( a ) C a p a c it o r d is c h a r g in g v o lt a g e
exponential. (Note that the
current is negative.)
Iin itia l
R
0 t
( b ) D is c h a rg in g c u rre n t

Chapter 9

VS
The same shape curves are
seen if a square wave is
used for the source.
What is the shape of the VC
current curve?
R
VS
C VR
The current has the same shape as VR.

Chapter 9
Universal exponential curves

Specific values for 100%
98%
99%
95%
current and voltage 86%
can be read from a 80%
Rising exponential
universal curve. For
Percent of final value
63%
60%
an RC circuit, the
time constant is
40%
37%
τ  RC Falling exponential
20%
14%
5%
2% 1%
0
0 1t 2t 3t 4t 5t
Number of time constants

Chapter 9
Universal exponential curves

The universal curves can be applied to general formulas for
the voltage (or current) curves for RC circuits. The general
voltage formula is
v =VF + (Vi VF)et/RC
VF = final value of voltage
Vi = initial value of voltage
v = instantaneous value of voltage
The final capacitor voltage is greater than the initial
voltage when the capacitor is charging, or less than the
initial voltage when it is discharging.
Chapter 9
Capacitive reactance
Capacitive reactance is the opposition to ac by a
capacitor. The equation for capacitive reactance is
1
XC 
2πfC
The reactance of a 0.047 F capacitor when a

frequency of 15 kHz is applied is 226 

Chapter 9
When capacitors are in series, the total reactance is the sum of the
individual reactances. That is,
X C(tot )  X C1  X C2  X C3    X Cn
Assume three 0.033 F capacitors are in series with a 2.5 kHz

ac source. What is the total reactance?
The reactance of each capacitor is

1 1
XC    1.93 k
2πfC 2π  2.5 kHz  0.033 μF 
X C(tot )  X C1  X C2  X C3
 1.93 k  1.93 k  1.93 k  5.79 k

Chapter 9
When capacitors are in parallel, the total reactance is the reciprocal
of the sum of the reciprocals of the individual reactances. That is,
1
X C(tot ) 
1 1 1 1
    
X C1 X C2 X C3 X Cn
If the three 0.033 F capacitors from the last example are

placed in parallel with the 2.5 kHz ac source, what is the total
reactance?
The reactance of each capacitor is 1.93 k
1 1
X C(tot )    643 
1 1 1 1 1 1
  + +
X C1 X C2 X C3 1.93 k 1.93 k 1.93 k

Chapter 9
Capacitive Voltage Divider

Two capacitors in series are commonly used as a capacitive voltage
divider. The capacitors split the output voltage in proportion to their
reactance (and inversely proportional to their capacitance).
What is the output voltage for the capacitive voltage divider?
1 1
X C1   4.82 k
2πfC1 2π 33 kHz 1000 pF 
1 1
XC2    482  C1
2πfC2 2π 33 kHz  0.01 μF 
1000 pF
X C (tot )  X C1  X C 2 1.0 V
 4.82 k  482   5.30 k f = 33 kHz C2 Vout
0.01 µF
 XC2   482  
Vout 
X 

Vs   1.0 V = 91 mV
 C (tot )   5.30 k 

Chapter 9
Capacitive Voltage Divider

Instead of using a ratio of reactances in the capacitor voltage divider
equation, you can use a ratio of the total series capacitance to the
output capacitance (multiplied by the input voltage). The result is
the same. For the problem presented in the last slide,
C( tot ) 
C1C2

1000 pF 0.01 μF   909 pF
C1  C2 1000 pF  0.01 μF
C   909 pF  C1
Vout   (tot )  Vs    1.0 V = 91 mV 1000 pF
C
 2   0.01 μF  1.0 V
f = 33 kHz C2 Vout
0.01 µF

Chapter 9
Capacitive phase shift
When a sine wave

is applied to a VC
0
capacitor, there is a
phase shift between
o
90
voltage and current
such that current
I
always leads the 0
voltage by 90o.

Chapter 9
Power in a capacitor
Energy is stored by the capacitor during a portion of the ac
cycle and returned to the source during another portion of
the cycle.
Voltage and current are always 90o out of phase.
For this reason, no true power is dissipated by a capacitor,
because stored energy is returned to the circuit.
The rate at which a capacitor stores or returns
energy is called reactive power. The unit for reactive
power is the VAR (volt-ampere reactive).

Chapter 9
Power supply filtering

There are many applications for capacitors. One is in
filters, such as the power supply filter shown here.
Rectifier
C Load
60 Hz ac
resistance
The filter smoothes the

pulsating dc from the
rectifier.

Chapter 9
Coupling capacitors
Coupling capacitors are used to pass an ac signal
from one stage to another while blocking dc.
3V
0V 0V
+V
R1
The capacitor isolates dc Input
Am plifier
C
Am plifier
O utput
between the amplifier stages,
stage 1 stage 2
R2
preventing dc in one stage from

affecting the other stage.

Chapter 9
Bypass capacitors
Another application is to bypass an ac signal to ground
but retain a dc value. This is widely done to affect gain
in amplifiers.
dc plus
ac
0V
dc only
0V
The bypass capacitor places R1
A
point A at ac ground, keeping
Point in circuit where R
only a dc value at point A. only dc is required
2 C

Chapter 9
Selected Key Terms
Capacitor An electrical device consisting of two conductive
plates separated by an insulating material and
possessing the property of capacitance.
Dielectric The insulating material between the conductive

plates of a capacitor.
Farad The unit of capacitance.
RC time A fixed time interval set by the R and C values,

constant that determine the time response of a series RC
circuit. It equals the product of the resistance
and the capacitance.
Chapter 9
Selected Key Terms
Capacitive The opposition of a capacitor to sinusoidal
reactance current. The unit is the ohm.
Instantaneous The value of power in a circuit at a given

power (p) instant of time.
True power The power that is dissipated in a circuit

(Ptrue) usually in the form of heat.
Reactive The rate at which energy is alternately stored

power (Pr ) and returned to the source by a capacitor. The
unit is the VAR.
VAR The unit of reactive power.
(volt-ampere
reactive)
Chapter 9
Quiz
1. The capacitance of a capacitor will be larger if

a. the spacing between the plates is increased.
b. air replaces oil as the dielectric.
c. the area of the plates is increased.
d. all of the above.

Chapter 9
Quiz
2. The capacitance of two capacitors connected in series

will is analogous to
a. two resistors connected in series
b. two resistors connected in parallel
c. none of the above.

Chapter 9
Quiz
3. Electrolytic capacitors are useful in applications where

a. a precise value of capacitance is required.
b. low leakage current is required.
c. large capacitance is required.

Chapter 9
Quiz
4. If a 0.015 F capacitor is in series with a 6800 pF

capacitor, the total capacitance is
a. 1568 pF.
b. 4678 pF.
c. 6815 pF.
d. 0.022 F.

Chapter 9
Quiz
5. Two capacitors that are initially uncharged are

connected in series with a dc source. Compared to the
larger capacitor, the smaller capacitor will have
a. the same charge.
b. more charge.
c. less voltage.
d. the same voltage.

Chapter 9
Quiz
6. When a capacitor is connected through a resistor to a dc

voltage source, the charge on the capacitor will reach 50%
of its final charge in
a. less than one time constant.
b. exactly one time constant.
c. greater than one time constant.
d. answer depends on the amount of voltage.

Chapter 9
Quiz
7. When a capacitor is connected through a series resistor

and switch to a dc voltage source, the voltage across the
resistor after the switch is closed has the shape of
a. a straight line.
b. a rising exponential.
c. a falling exponential.
d. none of the above.

Chapter 9
Quiz
8. The capacitive reactance of a 100 F capacitor to 60 Hz

is
a. 6.14 k
b. 265 
c. 37.7 
d. 26.5 

Chapter 9
Quiz
9. If an sine wave from a function generator is applied to a

capacitor, the current will
a. lag voltage by 90o.
b. lag voltage by 45o.
c. be in phase with the voltage.
d. none of the above.

Chapter 9
Quiz
10. When a capacitor is used to pass an AC signal while

removing DC, it is a
a. decoupling capacitor.
b. ripple filter capacitor.
c. bypass capacitor.
d. coupling capacitor.

Chapter 9
Quiz
Answers:
1. c 6. a
2. b 7. c
3. c 8. d
4. b 9. d
5. a 10. d


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electronics fundamentals

circuits, devices, and applications

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

The Basic Capacitor

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

The Basic Capacitor

A capacitor with stored charge can act as a temporary battery.

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Dip p e d p h e n o lic c o a tin g

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Pla stic film

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Symbol for any electrolytic capacitor

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

What is the value of

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

If a 0.001 F capacitor is connected

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

The RC time constant

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

The RC time constant

The current has the same shape as VR.

Universal exponential curves

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Universal exponential curves

The reactance of a 0.047 F capacitor when a

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Assume three 0.033 F capacitors are in series with a 2.5 kHz

The reactance of each capacitor is

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

If the three 0.033 F capacitors from the last example are

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Capacitive Voltage Divider

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Capacitive Voltage Divider

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Capacitive phase shift

When a sine wave

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Power supply filtering

The filter smoothes the

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

preventing dc in one stage from

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

The bypass capacitor places R1

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Dielectric The insulating material between the conductive

Farad The unit of capacitance.

RC time A fixed time interval set by the R and C values,

Instantaneous The value of power in a circuit at a given

True power The power that is dissipated in a circuit

Reactive The rate at which energy is alternately stored

1. The capacitance of a capacitor will be larger if

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle