Electronics Fundamentals: Circuits, Devices, and Applications

electronics fundamentals
circuits, devices, and applications
THOMAS L. FLOYD
DAVID M. BUCHLA
chapter 6
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Floyd/Buchla River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 6
Identifying series-parallel relationships

Most practical circuits have
combinations of series and parallel
components.
Components that are connected in
series will share a common path.
Components that are connected in

parallel will be connected across 1 2
the same two nodes.

Chapter 6
Combination circuits
Most practical circuits have various combinations of
series and parallel components. You can frequently
simplify analysis by combining series and parallel
components.
An important analysis method is to form an equivalent
circuit. An equivalent circuit is one that has
characteristics that are electrically the same as
another circuit but is generally simpler.

Chapter 6
Equivalent circuits
For example:
R1
1 .0 k  is equivalent to R1
2 .0 k 
R2
1 .0 k 
There are no electrical measurements that can

distinguish the boxes.

Chapter 6
Equivalent circuits
Another example:
is equivalent to
R1 R2 R 1 ,2
1 .0 k  1 .0 k  500 
There are no electrical measurements that can

distinguish the boxes.

Chapter 6
is equivalent to
R1
1 .0 k  R3 R 1 ,2 R3
R2 4 .7 k  3 .7 k  4 .7 k 
2 .7 k 
is equivalent to
There are no electrical
R 1,2 ,3
2 .0 7 k  measurements that can
distinguish between the
three boxes.
Chapter 6
Kirchhoff’s voltage law and Kirchhoff’s current law

can be applied to any circuit, including combination
circuits.
For example, So will
applying KVL, the R 22 this path!
path shown will 470 
R4
have a sum of 0 V. VS R 11
5 .0 V 270 
100 
R3 R5
330  100 
R6
Sta rt/Fin ish
Sta rt/Fin ish 100 

Chapter 6
Kirchhoff’s current law can also be applied to the

same circuit. What are the readings for node A?
I I
+ - A + -
26.5 mA 8.0 mA
R2
I 470 W
+ + - R4
VS 18.5 mA
5.0 V
100 W
R1 R3 R5
270 W 330 W 100 W
R6
100 W

Chapter 6
R1
VS + 270 W
10 V
Combination circuits R2 R3
330 W 470 W
Tabulating current, resistance, voltage and power is a

useful way to summarize parameters. Solve for the
unknown quantities in the circuit shown.
I1= 21.6 mA R1= 270  V1= 5.82 V P1= 126 mW

I2= 12.7 mA R2= 330  V2= 4.18 V P2= 53.1 mW
I3= 8.9 mA R3= 470  V3= 4.18 V P3= 37.2 mW
IT= 21.6 mA RT= 464  VS= 10 V PT= 216 mW
Chapter 6
R1
VS + 270 W
10 V
Kirchhoff’s laws can be applied
R2 R3
as a check on the answer. 330 W 470 W
Notice that the current in R1 is

equal to the sum of the branch currents in R2 and R3.
The sum of the voltages around the outside loop is zero.
I1= 21.6 mA R1= 270  V1= 5.82 V P1= 126 mW

I2= 12.7 mA R2= 330  V2= 4.18 V P2= 53.1 mW
I3= 8.9 mA R3= 470  V3= 4.18 V P3= 37.2 mW
IT= 21.6 mA RT= 464  VS= 10 V PT= 216 mW
Chapter 6
Loaded voltage divider +

R1
A
The voltage-divider equation
R2 R3
was developed for a series
circuit. Recall that the output
voltage is given by
 R2 
V2    VS
 RT 
A voltage-divider with a resistive load is a combinational
circuit and the voltage divider is said to be loaded. The
loading reduces the total resistance from node A to ground.

Chapter 6
Loaded voltage divider VS=

+15 V R1
330 W A
R2 R3
What is the voltage 470 W 2.2 kW
across R3?
Form an equivalent series circuit by combining R2 and

R3; then apply the voltage-divider formula to the
equivalent circuit: R2,3  R2 R3  470  2.2 k = 387 
 R2,3   387  
V3  V2,3   VS   15 V  8.10 V
R R   330   387  
 1 2,3 

Chapter 6
Stiff voltage divider VS R1
A stiff voltage-divider is one in

which the loaded voltage nearly R2 RL
the same as the no-load voltage.
To accomplish this, the load
current must be small compared
to the bleeder current (or RL is large compared to the divider resistors).
If R1 = R2 = 1.0 k, what value of RL will make the divider a
stiff voltage divider? What fraction of the unloaded voltage is
the loaded voltage?
RL > 10 R2; RL should be 10 k or greater. For a 10 k load,
 R2 || RL   0.91 k  This is 95% of the
VL   V 
 S   VS   0.476 VS
 R1  R2 || RL   1.0 k  0.91 k  unloaded voltage.
Chapter 6
Loading effect of R1
+
a voltmeter VS + 470 kW 4.04
10 VV
10 V
Assume VS = 10 V, but the R2
+
470 kW 4.04 V
meter reads only 4.04 V
when it is across either R1
or R2.
Can you explain what is happening?
All measurements affect the quantity being measured. A
voltmeter has internal resistance, which can change the
resistance of the circuit under test. In this case, a 1 M
internal resistance of the meter accounts for the readings.

Chapter 6
Wheatstone bridge
The Wheatstone bridge consists R1 R3

of a dc voltage source and four V S +
O u tpu t
resistive arms forming two -
voltage dividers. The output is R2 R4

taken between the dividers.
Frequently, one of the bridge
resistors is adjustable.
When the bridge is balanced, the output voltage is zero,
and the products of resistances in the opposite diagonal
arms are equal.

Chapter 6
Wheatstone bridge
R1 R3
Example: What is the VS + 470  330 
value of R2 if the bridge 12 V -
O u tpu t
is balanced? 384 
R2 R4
270 
Balanced Wheatstone:
R1*R4 must be = R2*R3,
so (470)(270) = R2(330).
Or, R2 = (470)(270)/(330)

Chapter 6
Thevenin’s theorem
Thevenin’s theorem states that any two-terminal,
resistive circuit can be replaced with a simple
equivalent circuit when viewed from two output
terminals. The equivalent circuit is:
R TH
V TH

Chapter 6
VTH is defined as the open circuit voltage between the two
output terminals of a circuit.
RTH is defined as the total resistance appearing between
the two output terminals when all sources have been
replaced by their internal resistances.
R TH
V TH

Chapter 6
What is the Thevenin voltage for the circuit? 8.76 V

What is the Thevenin resistance for the circuit? 7.30 k
Output terminals
R1
Remember, the
VS 10 k load resistor
12 V R2 RL has no effect on
27 k 68 k the Thevenin
parameters.

Chapter 6
Thevenin’s theorem is useful for solving the Wheatstone

bridge. One way to Thevenize the bridge is to create two
Thevenin circuits  from A to ground and from B to ground.
The resistance between point R1 R2
V
A and ground is R1||R3 and the S +
RL
resistance from B to ground is A B
-
R2||R4. The voltage on each R3 R4
side of the bridge is found
using the voltage divider rule.

Chapter 6
For the bridge shown, R1||R3 = 165  and
R2||R4 = 179 . The voltage from A to ground
(with no load) is 7.5 V and from B to ground
(with no load) is 6.87 V . R R2
1
VS 330 W 390 W
+15 V + RL
A B
- 150 W
R3 R4
330 W 330 W
The Thevenin circuits for each of the

bridge are shown on the following slide.
Chapter 6
''
RRTHTH AA RRLL BB RRTH
TH
'
I'TH V
=V
THTH 165
165WW 150
150W
W 179
179WW ITHV=TH
TH
7.5
7.5VV
6.87V/494Ω 6.87ΩV
7.5V/494
= 1.391mA = 1.518mA
Putting the load on the Thevenin circuits and

applying the superposition theorem allows you to
calculate the load current. The load current is:
ITH – I'TH = 1.391mA – 1.518mA = 1.27 mA
Chapter 6
Superposition theorem
The superposition theorem is a way to determine currents
and voltages in a linear circuit that has multiple sources by
taking one source at a time and algebraically summing the
results.
R1 R3
What does the 2 .7 k  6 .8 k
I2
ammeter read for V S1 +
- V S2 +
I2? (See next slide 12 V -

+
18 V -
R2
for the method and 6 .8 k
the answer).

Chapter 6
What does the ammeter

RR111 RR33
read for I2?
2 .7 kkW
2.7  II22 66.8
6.8.8 kkW
kW
VVSS11 +
+
-- V
V S2S 2 ++
112
2V V ++1.56 mA
18 V
18 V
Set up a table of
- --
RR222
pertinent information 66.8
6.8 kW
.8 kk
and solve for each
quantity listed:
Source 1: RT(S1)= 6.10 k I1= 1.97 mA I2= 0.98 mA
Source 2: RT(S2)= 8.73 k I3= 2.06 mA I2= 0.58 mA
Both sources I2= 1.56 mA
The total current is the algebraic sum.
Chapter 6
Maximum power transfer

The maximum power is transferred from a source to a
load when the load resistance is equal to the internal
source resistance.
RS
VS +
RL
The maximum power transfer theorem assumes the

source voltage and resistance are fixed.
Chapter 6
Maximum power transfer
What is the power delivered to the matching load?
RS
The voltage to the 50 W
VS +
load is 5.0 V. The RL
10 V
power delivered is 50 W
V 2 5.0 V 
2
PL   = 0.5 W
RL 50 

Chapter 6
Troubleshooting
The effective troubleshooter must think logically about
circuit operation.
Understand normal circuit operation and
find out the symptoms of the failure.
Decide on a logical set of steps to find the
fault.
Following the steps in the plan, make

measurements to isolate the problem.
Modify the plan if necessary.
Chapter 6
VS=
Troubleshooting +15 V
330 W
R1
A
R R3
The output of the voltage- 470 W
2
2.2 kW
divider is 6.0 V. Describe how
you would use analysis and
planning in finding the fault.
From an earlier calculation, V3 should equal 8.10 V. A low
voltage is most likely caused by a low source voltage or
incorrect resistors (possibly R1 and R2 reversed). If the circuit is
new, incorrect components are possible.
Decide on a logical set of steps to locate the fault. You could
decide to 1) check the source voltage, 2) disconnect the load and
check the output voltage, and if it is correct, 3) check the load
resistance. If R3 is correct, check other resistors.
Chapter 6
Selected Key Terms
Loading The effect on a circuit when an element that
draws current from the circuit is connected
across the output terminals.
Load current The output current supplied to a load.
Bleeder The current left after the load current is

current subtracted from the total current into the circuit.
Wheatstone A 4-legged type of bridge circuit with which an

bridge unknown resistance can be accurately measured
using the balanced state. Deviations in resistance
can be measured using the unbalanced state.

Chapter 6
Selected Key Terms
Thevenin’s A circuit theorem that provides for reducing
theorem any two-terminal resistive circuit to a single
equivalent voltage source in series with an
equivalent resistance.
Superposition A method for analyzing circuits with two or
more sources by examining the effects of each
source by itself and then combining the
effects.
Maximum Power The condition, when the load resistance
Transfer equals the source resistance, under which
maximum power is transferred to the load.

Chapter 6
Quiz
1. Two circuits that are equivalent have the same

a. number of components
b. response to an electrical stimulus
c. internal power dissipation
d. all of the above

Chapter 6
Quiz
2. If a series equivalent circuit is drawn for a complex

circuit, the equivalent circuit can be analyzed with
a. the voltage divider theorem
b. Kirchhoff’s voltage law
c. both of the above
d. none of the above

Chapter 6
Quiz
3. For the circuit shown,

a. R1 is in series with R2 R1 R2
b. R1 is in parallel with R2 VS +
R3
c. R2 is in series with R3
-
d. R2 is in parallel with R3

Chapter 6
Quiz
4. For the circuit shown,

R4
a. R1 is in series with R2
R1 R2
b. R4 is in parallel with R1
VS +
c. R2 is in parallel with R3 -
R3

Chapter 6
Quiz
5. A signal generator has an output voltage of 2.0 V with

no load. When a 600  load is connected to it, the output
drops to 1.0 V. The Thevenin resistance of the generator is
a. 300 
b. 600 
c. 900 
d. 1200 .

Chapter 6
Quiz
6. For the circuit shown, Kirchhoff's voltage law

a. applies only to the outside loop
b. applies only to the A junction.
c. can be applied to any closed path.
d. does not apply.
R1
VS + 270 W
10 V A
R2 R3
330 W 470 W

Chapter 6
Quiz
7. The effect of changing a measured quantity due to

connecting an instrument to a circuit is called
a. loading
b. clipping
c. distortion
d. loss of precision

Chapter 6
Quiz
8. An unbalanced Wheatstone bridge has the voltages

shown. The voltage across R4 is
a. 4.0 V
R1 R3
VS 7.0 V
b. 5.0 V +
12 V
- + RL -
c. 6.0 V 1.0 V
R2 R4
d. 7.0 V

Chapter 6
Quiz
9. Assume R2 is adjusted until the Wheatstone bridge is

balanced. At this point, the voltage across R4 is measured
and found to be 5.0 V. The voltage across R1 will be
a. 4.0 V R1 R3
VS +
b. 5.0 V 12 V + RL -
-
c. 6.0 V
R2 R4
d. 7.0 V 5.0 V

Chapter 6
Quiz
10. Maximum power is transferred from a fixed source

when
a. the load resistor is ½ the source resistance
b. the load resistor is equal to the source resistance
c. the load resistor is twice the source resistance

Chapter 6
Quiz
Answers:
1. b 6. c
2. c 7. a
3. d 8. a
4. d 9. d
5. b 10. b


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electronics fundamentals

circuits, devices, and applications

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Identifying series-parallel relationships

Components that are connected in

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

There are no electrical measurements that can

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

There are no electrical measurements that can

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Kirchhoff’s voltage law and Kirchhoff’s current law

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Kirchhoff’s current law can also be applied to the

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Tabulating current, resistance, voltage and power is a

I1= 21.6 mA R1= 270  V1= 5.82 V P1= 126 mW

Notice that the current in R1 is

I1= 21.6 mA R1= 270  V1= 5.82 V P1= 126 mW

Loaded voltage divider +

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Loaded voltage divider VS=

Form an equivalent series circuit by combining R2 and

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Stiff voltage divider VS R1

A stiff voltage-divider is one in

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

The Wheatstone bridge consists R1 R3

voltage dividers. The output is R2 R4

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

What is the Thevenin voltage for the circuit? 8.76 V

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Thevenin’s theorem is useful for solving the Wheatstone

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

The Thevenin circuits for each of the

Putting the load on the Thevenin circuits and

I2? (See next slide 12 V -

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

What does the ammeter

Maximum power transfer

The maximum power transfer theorem assumes the

Maximum power transfer

What is the power delivered to the matching load?

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Following the steps in the plan, make

Bleeder The current left after the load current is

Wheatstone A 4-legged type of bridge circuit with which an

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

1. Two circuits that are equivalent have the same

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

2. If a series equivalent circuit is drawn for a complex

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

3. For the circuit shown,

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

4. For the circuit shown,

d. none of the above

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

5. A signal generator has an output voltage of 2.0 V with

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle