GENERAL LINGUISTICS

. prepared by: Eram Amjed

Definitions
 Linguistics is the scientific study of language ,
which analyses the language form , meaning, and
language in context .

 Linguist : the person who studies or explains

linguistic pheneomena rather than being fluent in
languages .
 Linguists are rather observers than being the
participant of the language .
 Linguistics versus traditional Grammar
 Linguistics is descriptive , not prescriptive , i.e. they
describe what is said , not what they think should be
said .
In a similar case , if people say (ain’t) instead of (aren’t ) ,
which is very misleading to relate to the original word ,
but linguistics consider it crucial to record this change
as a fact , they do not judge , but analyze the reasons
behind peoples’ choice of words or speech .
While , (ain’t) is not correct according to grammar rules ,
there’s no such word that used or recommended in
grammar .
 linguistics regard the spoken language as primary , because most
writing system are derived from the vocal sounds , unlike grammarians
they insist of the written form of language as it remains permanently .

Thirdly , traditional grammar assumes that Latin provides a universal

framework to fit all languages , which means as an example to force a
language like English to fit into Latin framework which is impossible .

, while linguistics does not seem to follow such notion , but they
believe each language has its own rule or framework to be applied .
This includes the split infinitive in Latin occurs unlike in English ,
there’s no such case !
i.e we can’t say ( to beautifully draw ) , but the right form is ( to draw
beautifully ) .
 The Scope of Linguistics
Phonetics : is the study of human speech sounds .
Phonology : is the study of sound patterning .
Syntax : is the study of the arrangement and the form of words .
( links the sound pattern and the meaning )
Semantic : is the study of meaning .

Phonology , Syntax , and Semantics constitute the Grammar of

language and the main concern of linguistics .
Pragmatics: deals with the hidden meaning of the spoken words .
Chapter Two
Design Features of Human Language &
animal communication
 Use of Sound Signals
Although humans share sound system for communication , but they
differ in the amount of messages or purposes they benefit from .
i.e. animals have limited amount of sound messaging , unlike human
beings they use numerous word speeches to express whatever they
want ………..
 Arbitrariness
Usually there is a connection between the kind of sound the animals
produse and the message they give , among humans the opposite is
true , there is not such link , the symbols are all arbitrary , like the
word : fish and the animal it represents .
 The need for learning
Most animals automatically know how to communicate , for
their system is genetically inbuilt ,reversely human
language needs a long process of learning , i.e. one cannot
learn in which they are brought up in isolation … so its
conditioned .
 Duality

Each animal has a bunch of sounds like cows under 10 .

Chickens around 20, foxes over 30 ….. But the amount of
their messages are restricted to the no. of sounds they utter
, they use it once or repeat them. But human language
along the sounds can link these sounds to form numerous
messages , while the sounds has no meanings in isolation .
This layer of sounds and the layer of combining sounds to
form larger units called Duality .
• Displacement
Mostly animals communicate about what’s happening at the time in
which sth. Happens , like the birds cry from danger , even among
humans like a baby’s cry ….. But without being able to give any
information ,
while human language can give information about the time and the
place of the events , this phenomena is called : displacement .

Creativity
as usual animals mostly convey limited and repetitive messages ,
while human language convey unlimited messages and also can
convey new words , or saying the same things everyday differently
each time it pops in their minds ………..
 Patterning
Human language has an organization of internal system of linking words , unlike
animals communication system which is simple and random . For instance the
sounds /b,a,e,t/ can form well defined words if we join them systematically , they
form words like : be , bat, tea . Where if we combine them randomly like : tb, ta .. ,
they don’t have any meaning . But for animals they are used in separation , unable
to link them .

Structure Dependence
Human language interlinking system has the feature of understanding the context ,
which differs from animal communication , like the no. of words used in a sentence
does not tell about the structure , as an example , adding plural s for every 1 st word
of any sentence :
pencils are cheap .
I bought cheap pencils ., 2nd sentence will result in making an error , if the above
guide was followed , same thing goes for not repeating words in written forms , for
its understood , while such features does not exist in animal communications .