KILN & COOLER BALANCE

MARCH 2004
 Objectives

“It is desirable to operate the kiln at the

lowest fuel consumption. This must be
consistent with the highest practical
output at an acceptable market quality.”

ATC March 2004 2

 WHY TO DO IT

 To get a detailed view of the kiln line performance

 Evaluate exact data for heat consumption,
production,...
 Basis for comparison
 impact of investment or modifications carried

out
 comparison to other plants

 Detect weak points - Action Plan

 Detect optimization potential
 Check of sensors, weigh feeder,...

ATC March 2004 3

 “Energy cannot be created or destroyed but
may be converted from one form to another”
Energy in = Energy out

MASS BALANCE

 massin =  massout
HEAT BALANCE

 heatin =  heatout
ATC March 2004 4
 BOUNDARY SELECTION

 Any boundary shape can be chosen.

 Every stream that crosses the envelope must be taken
into account.
 The boundary line is chosen so that the boundary points
are:
 useful for the balance goals

 easily accessible for reliable measurements

ATC March 2004 5

 BOUNDARY SELECTION

P/
Kiln H

Cooler

ATC March 2004 6

 BOUNDARY SELECTION AND STREAMS

Dust Exists System Dust Does Not Exit Boundary

Dust
Dust

Kiln Kiln Kiln

Kiln
Feed System Feed System

Clinker Clinker

Measuring
point (t/h)

ATC March 2004 7

 MASS BALANCE

 massin =  massout

ATC March 2004 8

 Example for MASS BALANCE
Cooler exhaust gas

Kiln feed False air

Return
dust
Primary air
Kiln exit
Fuels
gases Kiln System
Exit dust
Water cooling
spray air

Bypass gas and dust Clinker

 massin =  massout
ATC March 2004 9
 HEAT BALANCE

 heatin =  heatout

ATC March 2004 10

 HEAT BALANCE
Cooler exhaust gas
Wall
Kiln feed losses
Return False air
dust
Primary air
Kiln exit
Fuel
gases Kiln System
Exit dust
Water cooling
spray air

Bypass gas and dust Clinker

 heatin =  heatout
ATC March 2004 11
 Heat Transfer Mechanisms

heat
200°C 50°C

 Conduction
 Convection
 Radiation

ATC March 2004 12

 Conduction
 Transfer of heat from the hotter to colder part of a
body
 By direct molecular contact
Furnace wall

Hot gas Q Cold air Th  Tc

Q  kA
1200°C 25°C L

ATC March 2004 13

 Convection
hot air
cold air hot air
cold air

natural convection forced convection


Q  hA Tw  Tf 
 Natural convection:
 fluid moving from difference of density due to different

temperatures
 Forced convection:
 fluid is moved by the action of an external device

ATC March 2004 14

 Radiation

 Energy transferred by electro-magnetic radiation

Q
2000°C 50°C

Q  AT14  T2 4 

ATC March 2004 15

 HEAT TRANSFER
 Radiant heat transfer
Convection

 Free convection Radiation

(occurs by natural
thermal draft, at low
wind velocities)

 Forced convection
(occurs at high wind Air
velocities)

ATC March 2004 16

 Chemical Reaction

 Endothermic reaction - heat is consumed

 Calcium Carbonate breaks down to CaO (lime)

and CO2 when heated

 it takes heat in  the reaction is endothermic.

 Exothermic reaction - heat is released

 CaO (lime) reacts with Silica and the cement

minerals are formed

 the process gives out heat  the chemical

reactions is exothermic.

ATC March 2004 17

 Two Types of Heat

Sensible Heat
Absorbed or released by
a substance

Latent Heat
Linked to modification by chemical reaction,
change in state, change in structure

ATC March 2004 18

 SENSIBLE HEAT

The heat to remove from a material to cool it down to the

reference temperature (usually 0ºC).

Q = M × Cp (T) × (T - T0)

M = specific mass
Cp (T) = specific heat of a material at temperature T
T = temperature of M

ATC March 2004 19

 HEAT FROM FUEL

Qf = mf × ( LHVf + Cpmean f (Tf) × Tf )

Qf : heat from fuel (kcal/h)
mf : fuel flow rate (kg/h)
LHVf : fuel low heat value (kcal/kg)
Cpmean f : mean specific heat of fuel (kcal/kg.ºC)
Tf : fuel temperature (ºC)
OR
h = m • CV
h : heat from fuel (kcal/kg clk)
m : specific fuel consumption (kg/kg clk)
CV : calorific value of fuel (kcal/kg fuel)
ATC March 2004 20
 INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION
 The kiln exit gases might contain some unburnt gases (CO, H2,
CH4)
 The combustion heat from those fuels must be included as a out
stream

Qic = mCO ×LHVCO + mH2 × LHVH2 + mCH4 ×LHVCH4

The heat loss through the gas can be calculated to:

h= m•(CO%•12640+H2%•10800+ CH4% • 35 840)

m = specific gas quantity (Nm3/kg clk)
ATC March 2004 21
 Heat of Reaction

 Heat of reaction is the difference between the heat

absorbed in decarbonating the limestone and the
heat released in forming the clinker minerals

 It should be noted that raw meal chemistry affects

the reaction heat, the heat absorbed by the process
gets bigger as the LSF of the materials rises

 420 kcals/kg clinker is used if little else is known

ATC March 2004 22

 CLINKER THEORETICAL HEAT OF
FORMATION
 The heat required to form clinker from dry raw mix
 ZKG formula (German formula):

Qt = 4.11 Al2O3 + 6.47 MgO + 7.64 CaO - 5.11 SiO 2 - 0.60 Fe2O3

 If no clinker analysis: assume Qt = 420 kcal/kg ck

 Must be added to the clinker heat content as latent heat or
as a separate output heat stream.

ATC March 2004 23

 HEAT OF FORMATION

 Heat of dehydration of clay (endothermic)

 Heat of decarbonation of CaCO3 + MgCO3 (endothermic)

 Heat of formation of clinker (exothermic!)

 General assumption for the three: 1750 kJ / kg clk

ATC March 2004 24

 HEAT LOSS THROUGH KILN SHELL

Q w   tot A T  Ta 

Qw : heat loss through wall (W)

tot : total heat transfer coefficient (W/m².C)
A : shell area (m²)
T : shell temperature (ºC)
Ta : ambient temperature (ºC)

ATC March 2004 25

GLOBAL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT
65

RADIATION AND 60

CONVECTION HEAT 55

TRANSFER 50

COEFFICIENT (TOTAL) W/M2C

45 v = 14 m/s wind
13
40 12
11

Radiation and Convection 35 10

9
30 8
7
25 6
5
20
4
3
15 n)
2 e ctio
o nv
1 ec
10 (fre
0 m/s
SS = 0.9
v=
Ambient T° ­20°C
5

0
100 200 300 400 500 600
T - T° (C)

ATC March 2004 26

 Shell Losses vs Shell Temperatures
25

22

5
Kcal/(m2.min)

20

0 Wind Velocity 1.5 m/S

17

5
Wind Velocity 0 m/s
15

12
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
5
SHELL TEMPERATURE ºC
ATC 10 March 2004 27
 Kiln Heat Consumption
Effect of Kiln Exit Oxygen

1730 1000

1720 950

kcals/kg (dry)
900
kcal/kg w et

1710
WET
850
1700 DRY
800
1690 750

1680 700
0 2 4 6 8
Exit Oxygen %

ATC March 2004 28

 How is cooling accomplished

Heat transfer
by radiation
Heat moves and convection
to clinker edge
by conduction

Air flows over

clinker cooling
surface

ATC March 2004 29

 Heat Transfer in Clinker

 Convection - Surface to Air

 Conduction - Inside to Surface
 Heat transfer is driven by temperature difference
 Takes place at the clinker surface
 To maximize it:
 Increase the air/material contact time with:

 Deeper bed (  more power)

 Slower air flow ( larger cooler)

ATC March 2004 30

 Heat Exchanger Types
Air Air Air

Material

Material Material

Parallel flow Counterflow Cross-flow

material
material material
air

T
T

air

ATC March 2004 31

 Heat Exchange Between Clinker and Air
Fixed bed Air out

Bed thickness
Clinker

clinker
air

Tem perature
Air in

Fluidized bed
Air out

Bed thickness
Clinker
clinker
air

Temperature
Air in

More efficient recovery with fixed bed

ATC March 2004 32

 Thermal Profile (All Clinker Coolers)

Temperature

clinker

Air above
clinker bed

Air into compartment

Distance

ATC March 2004 33

 General Truths (All Coolers)

1. The hotter the inlet temperature the hotter the clinker

outlet temperature.

2. The hotter the cooling air temperature the hotter the

clinker outlet temperature.

3. The longer the air/material contact time the cooler the

clinker outlet temperature.

ATC March 2004 34

 SYSTEM DATA COLLECTION

 Process
 Type of kiln
 Nominal capacity
 Supplier
 Fuel and firing system
 Type of burner nozzle
 Dust reintroduction system
 Dimensions of main equipment
 Data on fans, drives, etc.

ATC March 2004 35

 OPERATING DATA

 Various operating data (rpm, kW, temperature and

pressure profiles along kiln system, grate speed,
undergrate pressures, etc.)

 Electric power readings (before / after test)

 Chemical analysis of raw meal, dust(s) and clinker,

LSF, SR, AR, etc.

ATC March 2004 36

 KILN HEAT BALANCE
Kiln

Gas Outlet

Wall Losses
Misc

FUEL

Clinker Formation

Cooler Vent
Tertiary Air
Clinker Heat
Misc.
Secondary Air

Tertiary and
Secondary
Air

ATC March 2004 37

 The System
Tertiary air

Coal Raw Wall Vent

mill air mill air losses air

clinker

Secondar
y
air

Comp 1 Comp 2 Comp 3 Comp 4 Comp 5 Comp 6 Comp 7 Comp 8

clinker

ATC March 2004 38

 Measurement Plan

 Duration of an audit ?
 What to measure? How to measure?
 Material balance
 Gas flows
 Heat Balance
 Frequency of sampling and measurements?
 Which analyses have to be carried out ?
 Which further data are to be collected ?

ATC March 2004 39

 Basic figures:
kiln line 9 2240 tclinker /d
Mannersdorf preheater exit temp: 300-330°C
spec. heat cons.: 3.200 GJ/t

calciner / tertiary air duct burners

(mycel)
sunflower shell
coal mill

calciner burners (2) main burner

filter petcoke/coal/mycel petcoke/coal/mycel
waste oil animal meal
raw mill plastic
(waste oil)

ATC March 2004 40

 A2

Remarks
A4
A3 x
x x
x
O1
• Continuous measured flows
A5 x
V1 x
Kiln feed A6
x
• Sampling (plant) x
A7
O2
A1 A8
x
Kiln feed (including temp. measurement), x
x
A9
x

Kiln dust V2
A 11 x A 10
x x
x O3
A 12
A 13 x
x
V3 A 14
x
x x
A 15
O4
A 16 x
x
x A 18
V4
A 17 x
x
x
O5
A 19
x

ATC March 2004 41

 Remarks
• Continuous measured flows
Pfister calciner, Oil Flowmeter
B8 B 10 Sunflower shells to calciner
B2
x B1 x • Sampling (plant)
x x
x x Hot Meal after Calciner
V5V V5O
Waste oil, Fine coal (Autolab)
B7 B9
• Calculated
Coal transport air calciner, Transport air sunflower
shells
B3
B 11
x B4

x
x

B5

B6

ATC March 2004 42

 Remarks
• Continuous measured
Clinker after Cooler, Pfister Main burner, Weighfeeder plastics, Animal meal, Cooler exit gas
temperature, Tertiary air temperature; Coal mill: Raw coal feeder
• Sampling (plant)
Clinker (+temperature measurement after cooler)
Fuels: Fine Coal, Animal meal, Sunflower shells, Plastics x C9

Coal mill: Raw coal, Mycel, Raw Petcoke, Coal mill input
• Calculated
Transport air (Coal,Animal meal,sunflower sahells), cooling air kiln sealing,
x

C C C
11 12 13
x x x

C x x
1

C 10

x x
x C
x C x C x C7 x
2 x C x C x
3 4 5 6 C8

ATC March 2004 43

 INPUT DATA SUMMARY
• All referred to 1 kg clinker Production = .... t/h
• Reference temperature = 0°C Specific
• Ambient temperature = ...°C Heat cons. = .... kJ/kg
clk
Specification
Heat
(kg/kg clk), Temp.

(Nm3/kg clk)
(kW etc.) °C
(kJ/kg clk) (%)

Fuel combustion - primary firing -

- secondary firing -

Burnable matter in kiln feed -

Raw meal: sensible heat
Fuel: sensible heat
Primary air: sensible heat
Cooler air: sensible heat -
ATC March 2004 44
 OUTPUT DATA SUMMARY
Specification Temp. Heat
(kg/kg clk),
(Nm3/kg clk) °C (kJ/kg clk) (%)
(kW etc.)
Heat of formation
Water evaporation: - kiln feed
- water spray (s)
Exhaust gas: - sensible heat
- dust sensible heat
- dust CaO-loss
- unburnt gases (CO, etc)
Cooler: - waste air sensible heat
- middle air sensible heat
- clinker exit sensible heat
Bypass losses: - sensible heat
- dust sensible heat
- dust CaO-loss
- unburnt gases (CO, etc)
Radiation and Convection: - Preheater
- Rotary kiln
- Cooler
- Tert air duct
Rest (difference)
Total of outputs 100%

ATC March 2004 45

 HEAT BALANCE EXAMPLES
Wet Process Semi-Dry (Lepol) Dry Preheater (4-Stage)
kJ/kg clk % kJ/kg clk % kJ/kg clk %
1. INPUT from sensible heat 25 0.4 15 0.4 13 0.4
FUEL from combustion 5560 96.7 3343 97.6 3150 97.6

RAW MEAL from sensible heat 25 0.4 30 0.9 54 1.7

from sensible heat of 71 0.2 17 0.5 — —
water
67 1.2 20 0.6 6 0.2
COMBUSTION AIR from sensible heat of all
the
air supplied (prim. sec.) 5750 100 3425 100 3223 100

Total input
1750 30.4 1750 51.1 1750 54.3
2. OUTPUT 2370 41.2 506 14.8 13 0.4
Heat of formation 754 13.1 314 9.2 636 19.7
Evaporation of water from raw meal 25 0.4 21 0.6 18 0.6
Exhaust gas sensible heat — — — — — —
Dust sensible heat 59 1.0 50 1.5 63 2.0
Incomplete combustion (CO) 100 1.7 276 8.1 423 13.1
Clinker exit temperature 540 9.4 452 13.2 297 9.2
Cooler exhaust gases — — 42 1.2 — —
Losses due to radiation and convection 152 2.6 14 0.4 23 0.7
Water cooling (Recupol inlet chute)
Difference 5750 100 3425 100 3223 100

Total output
ATC March 2004 46
 Cooler Balance

Tertiary air Vent air

0,65 Nm³/kgck 1,14 Nm³/kgck
Secondary air 719°C 293°C
0,27 Nm³/kgck Coal mill Raw mill
1029°C 0,00 Nm³/kgck 0,00 Nm³/kgck

Clinker
95.600
1465°C

Grate surface 52,20 m²

Standard load 44,0 t/d/m²

Cooling air Clinker

2,07 Nm³/kgck 95.600
4°C 107°C

ATC March 2004 47

 Elements of Mass Balance
Tertiary air

mVA
Coal Raw Vent
mill air mill air air
mSA mTA mCM mRM
clinker
Secondary
air
mCK1

Comp 1 Comp 2 Comp 3 Comp 4 Comp 5 Comp 6 Comp 7 Comp 8

mF1 mF2 mF3 mF4 mF5 mF6 mF7 mF8

clinker
mCK2

ATC March 2004 48

 Elements of Heat Balance
Tertiary air

HVA
Coal Raw Wall Vent
mill air mill air losses air

HSA HTA HCM HRM HWL

clinker
Secondar
y
HCK1 air

Comp 1 Comp 2 Comp 3 Comp 4 Comp 5 Comp 6 Comp 7 Comp 8

HF1 HF2 HF3 HF4 HF5 HF6 HF7 HF8 clinker

HCK2

ATC March 2004 49

 Elements of Pressure
Tertiary air

PVA
PHOOD Coal Raw Vent
mill air mill air air

PTA PCM PRM

Secondar
y
air

PC1 PC2 PC3 PC4 PC5 PC6 PC7 PC8

Comp 1 Comp 2 Comp 3 Comp 4 Comp 5 Comp 6 Comp 7 Comp 8

PF1 PF2 PF3 PF4 PF5 PF6 PF7 PF8

ATC March 2004 50

 Other Measurements and Readings

 grate speed (for each section)

 clinker bed depth
 fans RPM, amps, damper opening
 water spray flow rate, if any
 all control room readings related to cooler
 obtain fan curves for all fans

ATC March 2004 51

 Mass Balance

In Out
clinker (mCK1) clinker (mCK2)
cooling air (mFi) secondary air (mSA)
tertiary air (mTA)
coal mill air (mCM)
raw mill air (mRM)
vent air (mVA)

In = Out

secondary air flow: calculated by difference

should be validated against a kiln balance

ATC March 2004 52

 Heat Balance

In Out
clinker (HCK1) clinker (HCK2)
cooling air (HFi) secondary air (HSA)
tertiary air (HTA)
coal mill air (HCM)
raw mill air (HRM)
vent air (HVA)
wall losses (HWL)

In = Out
secondary air heat : calculated by difference
good to validate it against kiln heat balance
secondary air temperature: calculated from secondary air heat

ATC March 2004 53

 Pressure Distribution Around Compartment

Fan outlet
20

Damper
pressure
Pressure (in. WG)

15 drop
Damper outlet
Undergrate
compartment Grate
10 Above plate P
cooler
grate

5 Clinker bed
pressure
Above drop
Fan Inlet clinker
0 bed

Location

ATC March 2004 54

 Blowing density

Blowing density along clinker cooler

2.0

1.8 Suggested blowing density

Actual blowing density
1.6
Blowing density (Nm³/m²/s)

1.4

1.2

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Cumulative area (m²)

ATC March 2004 55

 Temperature Stratification of Air Above Clinker Bed

Secondary & Air to Vent

Tertiary air coal mill air

1400°C
200°C
1000°C
400°C 300°C 250°C 150°C
700° C
175°C 125°C
500°C 100°C

ATC March 2004 56

 Measuring Actual Bed Depth

floor

ATC March 2004 57

 Estimating Bed Depth

Bed depth can be estimated from grate stroke frequency

Required: f : stroke frequency (stroke/min)
L : stroke length (in or cm, usually ~ 5 in.)
 : clinker density (lb/ft³ or kg/m³)
W : grate width (ft or m)
P : clinker production rate (ton/h or T/h)
c : conveying efficiency (0.50 to 0.90)

D P
 W L  f   c

Be careful with the units!

ATC March 2004 58

 Estimating Bed Depth (Example)

f : 12.5 strokes/min
L : 5 in.
 : 100 lb/ft³
W : 9.19 ft
P : 119.8 ton/h
c : 0.90

D 119.8 ton/h 2000lb/ ton12in/ft

100 lb/ft³ 9.19ft  5in/st 12.5st/min 60min/h 0.90
D  0.927 ft=11.1 in

ATC March 2004 59

 Cooling Efficiency

heat lost by clinker


heat input in clinker

hck in  hck out hck out

  1
hck in hck in

 Qualifies the cooling of the clinker but not the clinker cooler.
 More cooling is possible with more air but that does not
improve the cooler efficiency.
 An efficient cooler would give same cooling with less air.

ATC March 2004 60

 Recovery Ratio
heat gained by recovered gases

total usable heat input

hsa  hta

m  mta
hck in  hca  sa
mca

sa : secondary air
ta : tertiary air
ca : cooling air

 Measures how much heat is recovered by the system.

 Depends a lot on kiln heat consumption.

ATC March 2004 61

 Recovery k factor

ln1   
k  or   1  e k Qsa Qta 
Qsa  Qta

Qsa : secondary air flow (Nm³/kg ck)

Qta : tertiary air flow (Nm³/kg ck)

 Depends on both on the heat recovered and the combustion

air flow
 Good indication of cooler performance
 Can be used to predict secondary (and tertiary) air
temperature at different flow rate.
k < 1.1 poor cooler
k > 1.3 good cooler

ATC March 2004 62

 Cooler loss

cooler loss = all heat not recovered by combustion air

(secondary or tertiary)

cooler loss = heat content of clinker leaving cooler (hck out)

+ heat content of vent air
+ heat content of coal mill air
+ heat content of raw mill air
+ wall heat losses

Often a specification in supplier process performance guarantee

ATC March 2004 63

 Some typical values
  k cooler loss
(%) (%) (kcal/kg ck)

Alpena #19 94.1 85.0% 1.68 60.8

Richmond #3
Alpena #21 94.4 68.3 1.33 137.4
Alpena #23 94.1 77.1 1.24 102.0
Bath 97.2 74.0 1.63 114.1
Exshaw #4 95.3 82.0 1.71 74.8
Exshaw #5 92.4 63.0 1.19 147.6
Davenport 92.0 75.4 1.56 102.3
Fredonia #2 91.4 70.6 0.88 144.4
Paulding #2 95.4 81.7 1.09 85.4

ATC March 2004 64

 THERMAL IMPROVEMENTS
 Better insulation of rotary kiln or
preheater/precalciner.
 Improvement of the cooler efficiency.
 Reducing of false air inleaks.
 Reducing of internal dust circulations in cooler,
kiln or preheater.
 Modification of raw mix in order to decrease the
sintering temperature.
 Modification of raw mix in order to decrease the
heat required for decarbonation.

ATC March 2004 65