CHAPTER 4

REACTIONS IN AQUEOUS
.

SOLUTIONS

4.1  General Properties of Aqueous Solutions

4.2  Precipitation Reactions
4.3  Acid-Base Reactions
4.4  Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
4.5  Concentration of Solutions
4.6  Gravimetric Analysis
4.7  Acid-Base Titrations
4.8  Redox Titrations
Chapter Overview
Many chemical reactions and virtually all biological processes take place in water. In this chapter, we will discuss three
major categories of reactions that occur in aqueous solutions: precipitation reactions, acid-base reactions, and redox
reactions. In later chapters, we will study the structural characteristics and properties of water—the so-called universal
solvent—and its solutions.

Reactions occurring in water can be classified into three categories: acid-base reactions, precipitation reactions, and
oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions. To find examples of these look no further than your own body, your bathtub, and
your backyard. An acid-base reaction takes place when an antacid—a mild base—neutralizes an over secretion of stomach
acid. A precipitation reaction occurs when calcium ions combine with stearate ions to produce a ring of soap scum around
your bathtub or shower. An oxidation-reduction reaction occurs when the iron of a garden tool is exposed to air—in the
presence of moisture— to form rust. Notice that water is a common requirement for each reaction. And since water is in
our bodies, our bathtubs, and in the overnight dew in our yards, it is no surprise that these reactions are a common part of
our everyday world.
 Evaluate substances in aqueous solutions as nonelectrolytes, weak electrolytes, or strong electrolytes. (Section 4.1)

 Apply solubility guidelines toward determining whether a reaction will produce a precipitate. (Section 4.2)

 Compose the molecular, ionic, and net ionic equations for a reaction. (Section 4.2)

 Identify the spectator ions in a reaction. (Section 4.2)

 Compare the definitions of Brønsted acids and bases. (Section 4.3)

 Classify acids and bases as weak or strong. (Section 4.3)

 Categorize an acid as monoprotic, diprotic, or triprotic. (Section 4.3)

 Summarize a neutralization reaction between an acid and a base. (Section 4.3)

 Identify the various components of an oxidation-reduction reaction including reducing/oxidizing agents and half-reactions. (Section 4.4)

 Apply oxidation number rules toward determining the oxidation number of each element in a compound or polyatomic ion. (Section 4.4)

 Differentiate the types of reactions that may be oxidation-reduction reactions, including combustion, decomposition, displacement, and disproportionation. (Section 4.4)

 Utilize the activity series to determine whether a metal displacement reaction occurs. (Section 4.4)

 Calculate the molarity of a solution. (Section 4.5)

 Determine the concentration of a solution that has been diluted. (Section 4.5)

 Solve stoichiometry problems for reactions in solution, including gravimetric analysis, acid-base titration, and redox titrations. (Sections 4.6, 4.7, 4.8)
Activity series Aqueous solution Brønsted acid Brønsted base Combination reaction Combustion reaction Concentration of a
solution Decomposition reaction Dilution Diprotic acid Displacement reaction Disproportionation reaction Electrolyte
Equivalence point Gravimetric analysis Half-reaction Hydration Hydronium ion Indicators Ionic equation Metathesis reaction
Molar concentration Molarity (M) Molecular equation Monoprotic acid Net ionic equation Neutralization reaction
Nonelectrolyte Oxidation number Oxidation reaction Oxidation-reduction reaction Oxidation state Oxidizing agent
Precipitate Precipitation reaction Quantitative analysis Redox reaction Reducing agent Reduction reaction Reversible
reaction Salt Solubility Solute Solution Solvent Spectator ion Standard solution Titration Triprotic acid, 
Properties of Acids
Have a sour taste. Vinegar owes its taste to acetic acid. Citrus fruits contain citric acid.

Cause color changes in plant dyes.

React with certain metals to produce hydrogen gas.

2HCI aq   Mg s   MgCI 2 aq   H2 g 

React with carbonates and bicarbonates to produce carbon dioxide gas.

2HCI ( aq) + CaCO3 ( s) ® CaCl2 ( aq ) + CO 2 ( g ) + H2O ( l )

Aqueous acid solutions conduct electricity.

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Properties of Bases
Have a bitter taste.

Feel slippery. Many soaps contain bases.

Cause color changes in plant dyes.

Aqueous base solutions conduct electricity.

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Arrhenius Acids and Bases

Arrhenius acid is a substance that produces ( )

H+ H3O+ in water.

Arrhenius base is a substance that produces OH– in water.

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Brønsted Acids and Bases
A Brønsted acid is a proton donor

A Brønsted base is a proton acceptor

A Brønsted acid must contain at least one ionizable proton!

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Brønsted Acids and Bases

NH3 reversibly reacts with water to produce NH+4 and OH− ions. Because NH3 accepts a proton, NH3 is

a Bronsted base. Because water donates a proton, water is a Bronsted acid. The products of this

reversible reaction are also Bronsted acids and bases. NH +4 can donate a proton in solution, so NH+4 is a

Bronsted acid. OH− can accept a proton in solution, so OH− is a Bronsted base.

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Types of Acids
Monoprotic acids
HCl ® +
 H + CI
– Strong electrolyte, strong acid

HNO3 ® + –
 H + NO3 Strong electrolyte, strong acid

CH3COOH  H+ + CH3COO – Weak electrolyte, weak acid

Diprotic acids
H2SO 4 ® + –
 H + HSO 4
Strong electrolyte, strong acid

HSO4–  H+ +SO2–
4 Weak electrolyte, weak acid

Triprotic acids
H3PO 4  H+ +H2PO 4– Weak electrolyte, weak acid

H2PO 4–  H+ +HPO 2–
4
Weak electrolyte, weak acid

HPO2– + 2– Weak electrolyte, weak acid

4 
 H + PO 4
© McGraw-Hill Education. 4-10
Common Acids
Table 4.3
Some Common Strong and Weak Acids
**For bases, any base that is soluble is a strong base.
Strong Acids Formula
Hint: you need to be familiar with the solubility rules
Hydrochloric acid HCl
Hydrobromic acid HBr
Hydroiodic acid HI
Nitric acid HNO 3
Sulfuric acid H2SO 4
Perchloric acid HClO 4

Weak Acids Formula

Hydrofluoric acid HF
Nitrous acid HNO 2
Phosphoric acid H3PO 4
Acetic acid CH3COOH
© McGraw-Hill Education. 4-11
Example (1 of 4)

Classify each of the following species in aqueous solution as a Brønsted acid or base:

( a) HBr

( b) NO2–

( )
c HCO –
3

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Example (2 of 4)
Strategy

What are the characteristics of a Brønsted acid?

Does it contain at least an H atom?

With the exception of ammonia, most Brønsted bases that you will encounter at this
stage are anions.

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Example (3 of 4)
Solution

a) We know that HCL is an acid. Because Br and Cl are both halogens (Group 7A), we expect HBr, like
HCl, to ionize in water as follows:
HBr ( aq ) ® H+ ( aq ) + Br – ( aq )

Therefore HBr is a Brønsted acid.

b) In solution the nitrite ion can accept a proton from water to form nitrous acid:

NO2– ( aq ) + H+ ( aq ) ® HNO 2 ( aq )

This property makes NO2– a Brønsted base.

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Example (4 of 4)

c) The bicarbonate ion is a Brønsted acid because it ionizes in solution as follows:

HCO3– ( aq )  H+ ( aq ) + CO 32– ( aq )

It is also a Brønsted base because it can accept a proton to form carbonic

acid:
HCO3– ( aq ) + H+ ( aq )  H2CO 3 ( aq )

Comment
The HCO3-

species is said to be amphoteric because it possesses both acidic and basic properties. The double
arrows show that this is a reversible reaction.
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