GENERAL SCIENCE

09: Acids and Bases

Engr. Irene R. Billones-Flores, RCh, RChE, LPT

Arrhenius acids
• produce hydrogen ions (H+) when they dissolve in
water.

• are also electrolytes, because they produce H+ in water.

• have a sour taste.
• turn blue litmus red.
• corrode some metals.
Naming Arrhenius Acids
• Acids with a hydrogen ion (H+) and a nonmetal (or CN−) ion are
named with the prefix hydro and end with ic acid.
HCl(aq) hydrochloric acid
• Acids with a hydrogen ion (H+) and a polyatomic ion are named by
changing the end of the name of the polyatomic ion from
ate to ic acid or ite to ous acid
ClO3− chlorate ClO2− chlorite
HClO3 chloric acid HClO2 chlorous acid
Names of Common Acids
Sample Questions
Select the correct name for each of the following acids:
1. HBr A. bromic acid
B. bromous acid
C. hydrobromic acid
2. H2CO3 A. carbonic acid
B. hydrocarbonic acid
C. carbonous acid
3. HBrO2 A. bromic acid
B. hydrobromous acid
C. bromous acid
Answers
1. HBr Br−, bromide C. hydrobromic acid
The name of an acid with a hydrogen ion (H+) and a nonmetal
uses the prefix hydro and ends with ic acid.
2. H2CO3 CO32−, carbonate A. carbonic acid
An acid with a hydrogen ion (H+) and a polyatomic ion ending in
ate is called an ic acid.

3. HBrO2 BrO2−, bromite C. bromous acid

An acid with a hydrogen ion (H+) and a polyatomic ion ending in
ite is called an ous acid.
Arrhenius Bases
• produce hydroxide ions (OH−) in water.
• taste bitter or chalky.
• are also electrolytes, because they produce hydroxide
ions (OH−) in water.
• feel soapy and slippery.
• turn litmus indicator paper blue and phenolphthalein
indicator pink.
Arrhenius Bases
An Arrhenius base produces cations and OH− anions in
an aqueous solution.
Naming Arrhenius Bases
Typical Arrhenius bases are named as hydroxides.
NaOH sodium hydroxide
KOH potassium hydroxide
Ba(OH)2 barium hydroxide
Al(OH)3 aluminum hydroxide
Basic Properties of Acids and Bases
Sample Questions
Match the formulas of acids and bases with their names.

1. ___ HNO2 A. iodic acid

2. ___ Ca(OH)2 B. sulfuric acid
3. ___ H2SO4 C. sodium hydroxide
4. ___ HIO3 D. nitrous acid
5. ___ NaOH E. calcium hydroxide
Answers
Match the formulas of acids and bases with their names.

1. _D__ HNO2 D. nitrous acid

2. _E__ Ca(OH)2 E. calcium hydroxide
3. _B__ H2SO4 B. sulfuric acid
4. _A__ HIO3 A. iodic acid
5. _C__ NaOH C. sodium hydroxide
Brønsted–Lowry Acids and Bases
According to the Brønsted–Lowry theory,
• an acid is a substance that donates H+.
• a base is a substance that accepts H+.
Brønsted–Lowry Acids and Bases
In the reaction of ammonia and water,
• NH3 acts as the base that accepts H+.
• H2O acts as the acid that donates H+.

Because the nitrogen atom of NH3 has a stronger attraction for H+ than oxygen,
water acts as an acid by donating H+.
Sample Questions
In each of the following equations, identify the Brønsted–Lowry
acid and base in the reactants:

A.

B.
Answers
In each of the following equations, identify the Brønsted–Lowry
acid and base in the reactants:

A.
(acid) (base)
B.
(acid) (base)
Sample Questions
Identify each as a characteristic of
A. an acid or B. a base.

____ 1. has a sour taste

____ 2. produces OH− in aqueous solutions
____ 3. has a chalky taste
____ 4. is an electrolyte
____ 5. produces H+ in aqueous solutions
Answers
Identify each as a characteristic of
A. an acid or B. a base.

A 1. has a sour taste

B 2. produces OH− in aqueous solutions
B 3. has a chalky taste
A, B 4. is an electrolyte
A 5. produces H+ in aqueous solutions
Conjugate Acid–Base Pairs
In any acid–base reaction, there are two conjugate acid–base
pairs.
• Each pair is related by the loss and gain of H+.
• One pair occurs in the forward direction.
• One pair occurs in the reverse direction.
Conjugate Acid–Base Pairs
In this acid–base reaction,
• the first conjugate acid–base pair is HF, which donates H+ to form its conjugate base, F−.
• the other conjugate acid–base pair is H2O, which accepts H+ to form its conjugate acid,
H3O+.
• each pair is related by a loss and gain of H+.
Conjugate Acid–Base Pairs
In the reaction of NH3 and H2O,
• one conjugate acid–base pair is NH3/NH4+.
• the other conjugate acid–base pair is H2O/H3O+.
Sample Questions
1. Write the conjugate base for each of the following acids:
A. HBr
B. H2S
C. H2CO3
2. Write the conjugate acid of each of the following bases:
A. NO2−
B. NH3
C. OH−
Answers
1. Write the conjugate base for each of the following acids:
A. HBr → H+ + Br−
B. H2S → H+ + HS−
C. H2CO3 → H+ + HCO3−
2. Write the conjugate acid of each of the following bases:
(Add an H+ to each base to get the conjugate acid.)
A. NO2− + H+ → HNO2
B. NH3 + H+ → NH4+
C. OH− + H+ → H2O
Sample Questions
Identify the sets that contain acid–base conjugate pairs.
1. HNO2, NO2−
2. H2CO3, CO32−
3. HCl, ClO4−
4. HS−, H2S
5. NH3, NH4+
Answers
Identify the sets that contain acid–base conjugate pairs.
1. HNO2, NO2− acid, conjugate base
2. H2CO3, CO32− not acid–base conjugate pair
3. HCl, ClO4− not acid–base conjugate pair
4. HS−, H2S base, conjugate acid
5. NH3, NH4+ base, conjugate acid
Amphoteric Substances
Substances that can act as both acids and bases are amphoteric or
amphiprotic.

For water, the most common amphoteric substance, the acidic or basic
behavior depends on the other reactant.
• Water donates H+ when it reacts with a stronger base.
• Water accepts H+ when it reacts with a stronger acid.
Practice Problem
Identify the conjugate acid–base pairs in the following reaction:
Strong and Weak Acids
A strong acid completely ionizes (100%) in aqueous solutions.

A weak acid dissociates only slightly in water to form a few ions

in aqueous solutions.
Strong Acids
In water, the dissolved molecules of HA, a strong acid,
• dissociate into ions 100%.
• produce large concentrations of
H3O+ and the anion (A−).

The strong acid HCl dissociates

completely into ions:
Weak Acids
In weak acids, only a few molecules dissociate.
• Most of the weak acid
remains as the undissociated
(molecular) form of the acid.
• The concentrations of H3O+
and the anion (A−) are small.

H2CO3 is a weak acid:

Relative Strength of Acids and Bases
Strong and Weak Acid Dissociation
• In an HCl solution, the strong acid HCl dissociates 100% to
form H+ and Cl−.

• A solution of the weak acid HC2H3O2 contains mostly molecules

of HC2H3O2 and a few ions of H+ and C2H3O2−.
Diprotic Acids
Some weak acids, such as carbonic acid, are diprotic acids that
have two H+, which dissociate one at a time.

Because HCO3− is also a weak acid, a second dissociation can

take place to produce another hydronium ion and the carbonate
ion, CO32−.
Diprotic Acids
Some strong acids, such as sulfuric acid, are diprotic acids that
have two H+, which dissociate one at a time.

Because HSO4− is a weak acid, a second dissociation can take

place to produce another H+ and the sulfate ion, SO42− .
Strong Bases
Strong bases as strong electrolytes
• are formed from metals of
Groups 1A (1) and 2A (2).
• include LiOH, NaOH, KOH, Ba(OH)2, Sr(OH)2, and Ca(OH)2.
• dissociate completely in water.

• are found in household products used to remove grease and

unclog drains.
Weak Bases
Weak bases are weak electrolytes
• that are poor acceptors of H+ ions.
• produce very few ions in solution.
• include ammonia.
Strong and Weak Bases
Strong Bases
Lithium hydroxide LiOH
Sodium hydroxide NaOH
Potassium hydroxide KOH
Rubidium hydroxide RbOH
Cesium hydroxide CsOH
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH) 2*
Strontium hydroxide Sr(OH) 2*
Barium hydroxide Ba(OH)2*
*Low solubility, but they
dissociate completely
Bases in Household Products
Weak Bases
Window cleaner, ammonia, NH3
Bleach, NaOCl
Laundry detergent, Na2CO3, Na3PO4
Toothpaste and baking soda, NaHC3
Baking powder, scouring powder, Na2CO3
Lime for lawns and agriculture, CaCO3
Laxatives, antacids, Mg(OH) 2, Al(OH)3
Strong Bases
Drain cleaner, oven cleaner, NaOH
Direction of Reaction
Strong acids have weak conjugate bases that do not readily
accept H+.
• As the strength of the acid decreases, the strength of its
conjugate base increases.

In any acid–base reaction, there are two acids and two bases.
• However, one acid is stronger than the other acid, and one
base is stronger than the other base.
• By comparing their relative strengths, we can determine the
direction of the reaction.
Direction of Reaction
Sulfuric acid, H2SO4, is a strong acid that readily gives up H+ to
water.

• The hydronium ion H3O+ produced is a weaker acid than

H2SO4.
• The conjugate base HSO4− is a weaker base than water.
Direction of Reaction
The carbonate ion from carbonic acid, H2CO3, reacts with water.
• Water donates one H+ to carbonate, CO32− to form HCO3−
and OH−.
• From Table 11.3, we see that HCO3− is a stronger acid than H2O.
• We also see that OH− is a stronger base than CO32−.
To reach equilibrium, the strong acid and strong base react in the direction
of the weaker acid and weaker base.
Practice Questions
Identify each of the following as a strong or weak acid
or base:
A. HBr
B. HNO2
C. NaOH
D. H2SO4
E. Cu(OH)2
Dissociation of Acids and Bases
Because the dissociation of strong acids in water is essentially complete, the
reaction is not considered to be an equilibrium process.
• Weak acids partially dissociate in water as the ion products reach
equilibrium with the undissociated weak acid molecules.
• Formic acid is a weak acid that dissociates in water to form hydronium ion,
H3O+, and formate ion, CHO2−.
Writing Dissociation Constants
As with other dissociation expressions,
• the molar concentration of the products is divided by the molar
concentration of the reactants.
• water is a pure liquid with a constant concentration and is omitted.
• the expression is called acid dissociation constant, Ka.
Acid Dissociation Constant, Ka
When the value of the Ka
• is small, the equilibrium lies to the left, favoring the reactants.
• is large, the equilibrium lies to the right, favoring the products.

Weak acids have small Ka values, while strong acids have very
large Ka values.
Base Dissociation Constant, Kb
When the value of the Kb,
• is small, the equilibrium lies to the left, favoring the reactants.
• is large, the equilibrium lies to the right, favoring the products.
The stronger the base, the larger the Kb value.

The concentration of water is omitted from the base dissociation constant

expression.
Weak Acids and Bases: Ka and Kb Values
Practice Problem
Write the acid dissociation constant expression for
nitrous acid, HNO2.
Dissociation Constant of Water, Kw
Water is amphoteric—it can act as an acid or a base.
In water,
• H+ is transferred from one H2O molecule to another.
• one water molecule
acts as an acid, while
another acts as a base.
• equilibrium is reached
between the conjugate
acid–base pairs.
Writing the Dissociation Constant, Kw
• In the equation for the dissociation of water, there is both a forward and a
reverse reaction.

• In pure water, the concentrations of H3O+ and OH− at 25 °C are each 1.0 ´
10−7 M.
Dissociation Constant, Kw
The ion product constant for water, Kw, is defined as
• the product of the concentrations of H3O+ and OH−.
• equal to 1.0 ´ 10−14 at 25 °C (the concentration units are
omitted).

When
• [H3O+] and [OH−] are equal, the solution is neutral.
• [H3O+] is greater than the [OH−], the solution is acidic.
• [OH−] is greater than the [H3O+], the solution is basic.
Using Kw to Calculate [H3O+] and [OH−]
• If we know the [H3O+] of a solution, we can use the Kw to calculate the
[OH−].
• If we know the [OH−] of a solution, we can use the Kw to calculate the
[H3O+].
Pure Water Is Neutral
In pure water, the ionization of water molecules produces small
but equal quantities of H3O+ and OH− ions.

[H3O+] = 1.0 ´ 10-7 M

[OH−] = 1.0 ´ 10-7 M

[H3O+] = [OH−]
Pure water is neutral.
Acidic Solutions
Adding an acid to pure water
• increases the [H3O+].
• causes the [H3O+] to exceed 1.0 ´ 10−7 M.
• decreases the [OH−].

[H3O+] > [OH−]

The solution is acidic.
Basic Solutions
Adding a base to pure water
• increases the [OH−]
• causes the [OH−] to exceed 1.0 ´ 10−7 M
• decreases the [H3O+]

[H3O+] < [OH−]

The solution is basic.
Guide to Calculating [H3O+] and [OH–] in Aqueous Solutions

1. State the given and needed quantities.

2. Write the Kw for water and solve for the unknown [H3O+] or
[OH-].
3. Substitute the known [H3O+] or [OH-] into the equation and
calculate.
Sample Problem
What is the [H3O+] of a solution if [OH−] is 5.0 × 10−8 M?
Practice Problem
If lemon juice has [H3O+] of 2.0 × 10–3 M, what is the
[OH−] of the solution?
A. 2.0 × 10−11 M
B. 5.0 × 10−11 M

C. 5.0 × 10−12 M
The pH Scale
The pH of a solution
• is used to indicate the acidity of a solution.
• has values that usually range from 0 to 14.
• is acidic when the values are less than 7.
• is neutral at a pH of 7.
• is basic when the values are greater than 7.
The pH Scale
The pH of a solution is commonly measured using
• a pH meter in the laboratory.
• pH paper, an indicator that turns specific colors at a specific pH
value.
The pH of a solution is found by comparing the colors of indicator
paper to a chart.
pH Measurement
The pH of a solution can be determined using
(a)a pH meter,
(b)pH paper, and
(c) indicators that turn different colors corresponding to
different pH values.
pH of Common Substances
On the pH scale,
• values below 7.0 are acidic,
• a value of 7.0 is neutral, and
• values above 7.0 are basic.
Practice Question
Identify each solution as acidic, basic, or neutral.

A. ___ HCl with a pH = 1.5

B. ___ pancreatic fluid, [H3O+] = 1 ´ 10−8 M
C. ___ Sprite soft drink, pH = 3.0
D. ___ pH = 7.0
E. ___ [OH−] = 3 ´ 10−10 M
F. ___ [H3O+ ] = 5 ´ 10−12
Calculating the pH of Solutions
The pH scale
• is a logarithmic scale that corresponds to the [H3O+] of aqueous solutions.
• is the negative logarithm (base 10) of the [H3O+].

pH = −log[H3O+]

To calculate the pH, the negative powers of 10 in the molar concentrations are
converted to positive numbers.

If [H3O+] is 1.0 ´ 10−2 M,

pH = −log[1.0 ´ 10−2 ] = −(−2.00) = 2.00
Sample Problem
Aspirin, which is acetylsalicylic acid, was the first
nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug used to alleviate pain
and fever. If a solution of aspirin has a [H3O+] = 1.7 ´ 10−3
M, what is the pH of the solution?
Practice Problem
Find the pH of a solution with a [H3O+] of 4.0 × 10−5.
Calculating [H3O+] from pH
Given the pH of a solution, we can reverse the calculation to
obtain the [H3O+].
• For whole number pH values, the negative pH value is the
power of 10 in the [H3O+] concentration.
[H3O+] = 10−pH
• For pH values that are not whole numbers, the calculation
requires the use of the 10x key, which is usually a 2nd function
key.
Practice Problem
Determine the [H3O+] for a solution that has a pH of 3.42.
Reactions of Acids and Bases
Acids react with
• metals to produce salt and hydrogen gas.
• bases to produce a salt and water in a process called neutralization.
• bicarbonate and carbonate ions to produce carbon dioxide gas.

A salt is an ionic compound that does not have H+ as the cation or OH– as
the anion.
Acid–Base Titration
The titration of an acid. A known volume of an acid is placed in a flask with
an indicator and titrated with a measured volume of a base solution, such as
NaOH, to the neutralization endpoint.
Acid–Base Titration
Titration
• is a laboratory procedure used to determine the molarity of an
acid.
• uses a base such as NaOH to neutralize a measured volume of
an acid.
• requires a few drops of an indicator such as phenolphthalein to
identify the endpoint.
Indicator
The indicator
• is added to identify the endpoint.
• turns into a specific color when the solution is
neutralized or reaches a specific pH level
Endpoint of Titration
At the endpoint of the titration,
• the moles of base are equal to the moles of acid in the solution.
• the concentration of the base is known.
• the volume of the base used to reach the endpoint is measured.
• the molarity of the acid is calculated using the neutralization
equation for the reaction.
Guide to Calculations for an Acid–Base Titration
1. State the given and needed quantities and concentrations.
2. Write a plan to calculate the molarity or volume.
3. State equalities and conversion factors, including
concentration.
4. Set-up the problem to calculate the needed quantity.
Sample Problem
What is the molarity of an HCl solution if 18.5 mL of
0.225 M NaOH is required to neutralize 0.0100 L of HCl?
Practice Problem
What is the normality of an H2SO4 solution if 25.5 mL of 0.438 M
NaOH is required to neutralize 0.0250 L of H2SO4?
Buffers
A buffer solution maintains the pH by neutralizing small amounts
of added acid or base.

An acid must be present to react with any OH− added, and a

base must be present to react with any H3O+ added.
Buffers
When an acid or a base is added to water, the pH
changes drastically.
In a buffer solution, the pH is maintained; pH does not
change when acids or bases are added.
How Buffers Work
Buffers work because
• they resist changes in pH from the addition of an acid or a base.
• in the body, they absorb H3O+ or OH− from foods and cellular processes to
maintain pH.
• they are important in the proper functioning of cells
and blood.
• they maintain a pH close to 7.4 in blood.

A change in the pH of the blood affects the uptake of oxygen and cellular
processes.
Components of a Buffer
A buffer solution
• contains a combination of acid–base conjugate pairs, a weak
acid and a salt of its conjugate base, such as
HC2H3O2(aq) and C2H3O2−(aq)

• has equal concentrations of a weak acid and its salt.

How Buffers Work
In the buffer with acetic acid (HC2H3O2) and sodium
acetate (NaC2H3O2),
• the salt produces acetate ions and sodium ions.

• the salt is added to provide a higher concentration of the

conjugate base C2H3O2− than from the weak acid alone.
Function of a Weak Acid in a Buffer
If a small amount of base is added to this same buffer solution, it
is neutralized by the acetic acid, HC2H3O2, which shifts the
equilibrium in the direction of the products acetate ion and water.
Function of Conjugate Base in a Buffer
When a small amount of acid is added, the additional H3O+ combines with
the acetate ion, C2H3O2−, causing the equilibrium to shift in the direction of
the reactants, acetic acid and water.

The acetic acid produced contributes to the available weak acid.

Calculating the pH of a Buffer
By rearranging the Ka expression to give [H3O+], we can obtain
the ratio of the acetic acid/acetate buffer and calculate the pH.
Sample Problem
The Ka for acetic acid, HC2H3O2, is 1.8 × 10–5. What is
the pH of a buffer prepared with 1.0 M HC2H3O2 and 1.0
M C2H3O2−?
Calculating the pH of a Buffer
Because Ka is a constant at a given temperature,
• the [H3O+] is determined by the [HC2H3O2]/[C2H3O2−] ratio.
• the addition of small amounts of either acid or base changes the
ratio of [HC2H3O2]/[C2H3O2−] only slightly.
• the changes in [H3O+] will be small and the pH will be
maintained.
• the addition of a large amount of acid or base may exceed the
buffering capacity of the system.
Buffers and pH Changes
Buffers can be prepared from conjugate acid–base pairs such as
H2PO4−/HPO42− and HPO42−/PO43−, HCO3−/CO32−, or NH4+/NH3.

The pH of the buffer solution will depend on the conjugate acid–

base pair chosen.
Practice Problem
What is the pH of a buffer made from 0.10 M formic acid
(HCHO2) and 0.10 M formate (CHO2–)? The Ka for formic acid is
1.8 × 10–4.