GENERAL SCIENCE

04: Chemical Reactions and Quantities

Engr. Irene R. Billones-Flores, RCh, RChE, LPT

Laws of Chemical Combinations
1. Law of Definite Proportions
states that different samples of the same compound always
contain its constituent element in the same proportion by
mass.
2. Law of Multiple Proportions
states that if two elements can combine to form more than
one compound, the mass of one element that combines with a
fixed mass of the other elements is in ratios of small whole
numbers.
3. Law of Conservation of Mass
states that matter can neither be created nor destroyed.
Chemical Reactions
A chemical reaction
• occurs when a substance is converted
into one or more substances with
different formulas and different
properties.
• may be observed by the formation of
bubbles, a change in color, production
of a solid, or heat that is produced or
absorbed.
Chemical Equations
• used to represent a
chemical reaction
• shows the chemical
formula of the
reactants and products
• both sides of the
equation must be
balanced
Writing a Chemical Equation
To write a chemical equation,
• an arrow separates reactants from the products (à).
• reactants are written on the left side of the arrow; products are
written on the right side of the arrow.
• multiple reactants or products are separated by a + sign.
Writing a Chemical Equation
To write a chemical equation,
• a delta (Δ) sign indicates heat is used to start the reaction.

• physical states of compounds are denoted in parentheses

following the compound: solid (s), liquid (l), gas (g), and
aqueous (aq) or dissolved in water.
Identifying a Balanced Equation
In a balanced chemical
equation,
• no atoms are lost or gained.
• the number of atoms on the
reactant side is equal to the
number of atoms on the product
side for each element.
Guide to Balancing a Chemical Equation
• Step 1
Write an equation using the correct formulas for the reactants
and products
• Step 2
Count the atoms of each element in the reactant and products
• Step 3
Use coefficients to balance each element
• Step 4
Check the final equation to confirm it is balanced
Example: Formation of Al2S3
• Step 1
Write an equation using correct formulas of the reactants and
products.

• Step 2
Count the atoms of each element in the reactants and products
Reactants Products
1 atom Al 1 atoms Al Unbalanced
1 atom S 3 atoms S Unbalanced
Example: Formation of Al2S3
• Step 3
Use coefficients to balance each element
Starting with the most complex formula, change coefficients to balance the
equation.

• Step 4
Check the final equation to confirm it is balanced
Make sure coefficients are the lowest ratio
Reactants Products
2 atoms Al 2 atoms Al Balanced
3 atoms S 3 atoms S Balanced
Example
Balance the chemical equation when solid Fe3O4 reacts with
hydrogen gas to produce solid iron and water.

• STEP 1
Write an equation using the correct formulas of the reactants
and products.
Example
Balance the chemical equation when solid Fe3O4 reacts with
hydrogen gas to produce solid iron and water.

• STEP 2
Count the number of atoms of each element in the reactants
and products
Example
Balance the chemical equation when solid Fe3O4 reacts with
hydrogen gas to produce solid iron and water.

• STEP 3
Use coefficients to balance each element
Example
Balance the chemical equation when solid Fe3O4 reacts with
hydrogen gas to produce solid iron and water.

• STEP 4
Check the final equation to confirm it is balanced.
Balancing with Polyatomic Ions
• treat the polyatomic ion as one element.
• proceed with steps 1 – 4

Balance the following chemical equation:

Practice Question
Which of the following coefficients will make the equation
balanced:

a. 2,3,2,3
b. 2,3,4,3
c. 1,1,2,3
d. 3,2,3,2
Practice Question
Which of the following sets of coefficients will balance the
following equation:

a. 3,2,1,2
b. 2,3,1,3
c. 2,3,2,3
d. 3,2,3,2
Practice Question
In any balanced chemical equation, the number of each type of
atom on both sides of the equation is

a. doubled.
b. the same.
c. decreased by one.
d. increased by one.
Types of Chemical Reactions
Chemical reactions can be classified as
• combination reactions.
• decomposition reactions.
• single replacement reactions.
• double replacement reactions.
• combustion reactions.
Some reactions may fit into more than one reaction type.
Combination Reactions
• two or more elements form one product.
• simple compounds combine to form one product.
Decomposition Reaction
• one substance splits into two or more simpler substances.
Single Replacement Reaction
• one element takes the place of a different element in another
reacting compound.
Double Replacement Reaction
• the positive ions in the reactant compounds switch places.
Combustion Reaction
• a carbon-containing compound burns in oxygen gas to form
carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O).
• energy is released as a product in the form of heat.
Summary of Reaction Types
Practice Question
The following reaction takes place when an electric current is
passed through water. It is an example of a ________ reaction.

2H2O → 2H2 + O2

a. combination
b. single replacement
c. dehydration
d. decomposition
Practice Question
The reaction of carbon with oxygen to produce carbon monoxide
is an example of which class of reaction?

2C(s) + O2(g) → 2CO(g)

a. single replacement
b. double replacement
c. combination
d. endothermic
Redox Reactions
• electrons are transferred from one substance to another.

OIL RIG
Oxidation Is Loss of electrons. Reduction Is Gain of electrons.
Redox Reactions
Oxidation
• always involves a loss of electrons.
• may also be seen as an addition of oxygen.
• may also be seen as the loss of hydrogen atoms.

Reduction
• always involves a gain of electrons.
• may also be seen as the loss of oxygen.
• may also be seen as the gain of hydrogen.
Redox Reactions
Practice Question
Identify each of the following as oxidation or reduction:

A. Sn(s) à Sn4+(aq) + 4e−

B. Fe3+(aq) + 1e− à Fe2+(aq)
C. Cl2(g) + 2e− à 2Cl− (aq)
Practice Question
Which of the following is an oxidation-reduction reaction?

a. CaCl2 + Na2SO4 → CaSO4 + 2NaCl

b. KOH + HNO3 → H2O + KNO3
c. N2 + O2 → 2NO
d. AgNO3 + NaCl → AgCl + NaNO3
Practice Question
What is oxidized and what is reduced in the following reaction?

2Al(s) + 3Br2(g) → 2AlBr3(s)

a. Al is oxidized and Br2 is reduced.

b. AlBr3 is reduced and Br2 is oxidized.
c. Al is reduced and Br2 isoxidized.
d. AlBr3 is reduced and Al is oxidized.
Practice Question
In this reaction, what is the substance oxidized?

Zn(s) + 2 HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

a. chlorine
b. zinc chloride
c. hydrogen
d. zinc
Balancing Redox Reactions
A redox equation can be balanced using the following steps:

• STEP 1: Divide the equation into two half-reactions.

• STEP 2: Balance each half-reaction for mass and charge.
• STEP 3: Equalize the number of electrons transferred in each
half-reaction.
• STEP 4: Add the half-reactions together.
Balancing Redox Reactions
Consider the reaction between the Co3+ ion and nickel metal:
Balancing Redox Reactions
Consider the reaction between the Co3+ ion and nickel metal:
Balancing Redox Reactions
Consider the reaction between the Co3+ ion and nickel metal:
Balancing Redox Reactions
Balance the equation for the reaction of copper metal with the
nitrate ion in acidic solution.
The Mole and Avogadro’s Number
Small particles such as atoms, molecules, and ions are
counted using the mole, a unit called Avogadro’s number that
contains 6.02 × 1023 items.

1 mole = 6.02 × 1023 items

Avogadro’s number
602 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 = 6.02 × 1023

Avogadro’s number is named for Amedeo Avogadro

(1776–1856), an Italian physicist.
Particles in One-Mole Samples
Avogadro’s Number as a Conversion Factor
Avogadro’s number, 6.02 × 1023, can be written as an equality
and as two conversion factors.
Equality:
1 mole = 6.02 × 1023 particles

Conversion Factors:
Converting Moles to Particles
Avogadro’s number is used to convert moles of a substance to
particles.

How many CO2 molecules are in 0.500 mole of CO2?

Practice Question
The number of atoms in 2.0 moles of Al is

a. 2.0 Al atoms.
b. 3.0 × 1023 Al atoms.
c. 1.2 × 1024 Al atoms.
d. 6.0 × 1023 Al atoms.
Practice Question
The number of moles of S in 1.8 × 1024 atoms of S is

a. 1.0 mole of S atoms.

b. 3.0 moles of S atoms.
c. 1.1 × 1048 moles of S atoms.
d. 1.8 moles of S atoms.
Moles of Elements in a Formula
The subscripts in a formula show
• the relationship of atoms in the formula.
• the moles of each element in 1 mole of compound.

Aspirin
C9H8O4

1 molecule: 9 atoms of C 8 atoms of H 4 atoms of O

1 mole: 9 moles of C 8 moles of H 4 moles of O
Sample Problem
How many atoms of O are in 0.150 mole of aspirin, C9H8O4?
Practice Question
How many moles of iron are present in 3.15 × 1024 atoms of
iron?

a. 5.23 moles
b. 1.90 moles
c. 292 moles
d. 0.523 moles
Practice Question
One mole of particles of any substance contains how many
particles?

a. 10^6
b. 3 × 10^-10
c. 3 × 10^10
d. 6.02 × 10^23
Molar Mass
• the mass of 1 mole of an element.
• the atomic mass expressed in grams.
Calculating Molar Mass
To calculate the molar mass of a compound, we multiply the
molar mass of each element by its subscript in the formula and
add the results.

Calculate the molar mass for lithium carbonate, Li2CO3, used to

treat bipolar disorder. (Li = 7, C = 12, O = 16)
Calculating Molar Mass
Calculate the molar mass of C2H6O.
Calculations Using Molar Mass
Molar mass conversion factors
• are fractions (ratios) written from the molar mass.
• relate grams and moles of an element or compound.
Calculations Using Molar Mass
A box of table salt, NaCl, contains 737 g of NaCl. How many
moles of NaCl are in the box? (Na = 23, Cl = 35.5)
Calculations Using Molar Mass
A sample of water has a mass of 59.8 grams. How many moles
of water are in the sample?
Mass-Mole-Particle Conversion
Practice Questions
How many molecules of water, H2O, are present in 75.0 g of
H2O?

a. 75.0 molecules
b. 4.17 molecules
c. 7.53 × 10^24 molecules
d. 2.51 × 10^24 molecules
Practice Question
How many hydrogen atoms are present in 75.0 g of H2O?

a. 75.3 atoms
b. 4.02 atoms
c. 7.53 × 10^24 atoms
d. 5.02 × 10^24 atoms
Practice Question
One mole of helium (He = 4.2) gas has a mass of

a. 1.00 g.
b. 2.00 g.
c. 3.00 g.
d. 4.00 g.
Practice Question
What is the molar mass of sucrose (C12H22O11)?

a. 29.0 g
b. 50.2 g
c. 210 g
d. 342 g
Mole Relationships
A mole–mole factor is a ratio of the moles for any two
substances in an equation.
2Fe(s) + 3S(s) à Fe2S3(s)
Calculations with Mole Factors
How many moles of Fe2O3 can form from 6.0 moles of O2?
4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) à 2Fe2O3(s)
Practice Question
How many moles of Fe are needed for the reaction of 12.0 moles
of O2?
4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) à 2Fe2O3(s)

a. 3.00 moles of Fe
b. 9.00 moles of Fe
c. 12.0 moles of Fe
d. 16.0 moles of Fe
Practice Problem
Given the following equation, what is the correct form of the
conversion factor needed to convert the number of moles of O2
to the number of moles of Fe2O3 produced?

4Fe(s) + 3O2 (g) → 2Fe2O3(s)

a. c.

b. d.
Mass Calculations
Given a balanced equation, convert the mass of substance A to
substance B by
• first, converting the mass of substance A to moles using the
molar mass of A;
• second, converting moles of substance A to moles of substance
B using the mole–mole ratio of B to A in the balanced equation;
and
• third, converting moles of substance B to grams using the molar
mass of B.
Mass Calculations Flowchart
Sample Problem
Suppose we want to determine the mass (grams) of NH3 that can
be produced from 32 grams of N2 in the following equation.

N2(g) + 3H2(g) à 2NH3(g)

Practice Problem
How many grams of O2 are needed to produce 45.8 grams of
Fe2O3 in the following reaction? (Fe2O3 = 159.70)
4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) à 2Fe2O3(s)

a. 38.4 g of O2
b. 13.8 g of O2
c. 1.38 g of O2
d. 138 g of O2
Limiting Reactant
A limiting reactant in a chemical reaction
• is the substance that is used up first.
• limits the amount of product that can form.

The reactant that does not completely react and is left over at the
end of the reaction is called the excess reactant.
Determining the Limiting Reactant
In many reactions, there is a limiting reactant that determines the
amount of product that can be formed.

Given a chemical reaction, from each reactant we can

• calculate the amount of product possible when it is completely
consumed.
• determine the limiting reactant, the one that runs out first and
produces the smaller amount of product.
Determining the Limiting Reactant
If 3.00 moles of CO and 5.00 moles of H2 are the initial reactants
to produce CH3OH, what is the limiting reactant?
CO(g) + 2H2(g) à CH3OH(g)
Determining the Limiting Reactant
Silicon carbide, SiC, is a ceramic material that tolerates extreme
temperatures and is used as an abrasive and in the brake discs
of sports cars. How many grams of CO are formed from 70.0 g
of SiO2 and 50.0 grams of C?
SiO2(s) + 3C(s) à SiC(s) + 2CO(g)
Actual, Theoretical, and Percent Yield
When the reaction does not go to completion, or some of the
reactant or product is lost, the amount of product produced may
be less.
• Theoretical yield is the maximum amount of product, which is
calculated using the balanced equation.
• Actual yield is the amount of product actually obtained.
• Percent yield is the ratio of actual yield to theoretical yield.
Actual, Theoretical, and Percent Yield
On a space shuttle, LiOH is used to absorb exhaled CO2 from
breathing air to form LiHCO3. What is the percent yield of the
reaction if 50.0 g of LiOH gives 72.8 g of LiHCO3?
LiOH(s) + CO2(g) à LiHCO3(s)
Energy in Chemical Reactions
Almost every chemical reaction involves the loss or gain of
energy. When cold packs are activated, an endothermic reaction
takes place.

The SI unit for energy is the joule (J).

Often the unit of kilojoules (kJ) is used to illustrate the amount of

energy lost or gained in a chemical reaction.

1 kilojoule (kJ) = 1000 joules (J)

Heat of Reaction
amount of heat absorbed or released during a reaction that takes
place at constant pressure. The change in energy occurs when
• reactants interact.
• bonds break apart.
• products are formed.
The heat of reaction or enthalpy change, symbol ΔH, is the
difference between the enthalpy of the products and enthalpy of
the reactants.
ΔH = Hproducts − Hreactants
Exothermic Reactions
• heat is released.
• the energy of the products is
less than the energy of the
reactants.
• heat is a product.
Endothermic Reactions
• heat is absorbed.
• the energy of the products
is greater than the energy
of the reactants.
• heat is a reactant (added).
Calculating Heat Changes
The value of ΔH refers to the heat change for each substance in
the balanced equation.

For the decomposition reaction,

We can write the following conversion factors:

Calculating Heat Changes
How much heat in kJ is released when nitrogen and hydrogen
react to form 50.0 g of ammonia?
N2(g) + 3H2(g) à 2NH3(g) ΔH = −92.2 kJ
Practice Question
What type of reaction is: CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O + 218 kcal?

a. an endothermic reaction
b. an exothermic reaction
c. a single replacement reaction
d. a combination reaction
Practice Question
If the reaction shown below is exothermic, the energy level of the
reactants is

H2 + O2 → 2H2O

a. lower than that of the products.

b. higher than that of the products.
c. the same as that of the products.
d. possibly lower, possibly higher than that of the products.
Practice Question
Any reaction that absorbs 150 kcal of energy can be classified as

a. Endothermic
b. Exothermic
c. Activated
d. Reduction
Hess’s Law
• An indirect way of calculating the enthalpy for a chemical
reaction.
• The change in enthalpy for any chemical reaction is constant,
whether the reaction occurs in one step, or a series of steps.
• The overall enthalpy change in a reaction is equal to the sum of
the enthalpy changes for the individual steps in the process.
Hess’s Law
Characteristics of ΔH:

1. If the reaction is reversed, the sign of ΔH is also reversed.

2. If the coefficients in the balanced equation are multiplied (or
divided), the value of ΔH is multiplied (or divided).
Sample Problem
Calculate the enthalpy change for the reaction
N2(g) + 2 O2(g) → 2 NO2(g) ΔH = _________

using Hess's law and the following information:

N2(g) + O2(g) → 2 NO(g) ΔH = 180 kJ/mol
2 NO(g) + O2(g) → 2 NO2(g) ΔH = -112 kJ/mol
Sample Problem
Calculate the enthalpy change for the reaction
2 C(s) + O2(g) → 2 CO(g) ΔH = _________

using Hess's law and the following information:

C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g) ΔH = -393.5 kJ/mol
2 CO(g) + O2(g) → 2 CO2(g) ΔH = -566.0 kJ/mol