THEORIES OF

EVOLUTION
LAMARCKISM
THEORY OF ACQUIRED CHARACTERS AND
THEORY OF USE & DISUSE
BY JEAN LAMARCK 
⦿Changes in the structure or function of any
organ acquired during the life time of an
individual in response to changes in the
environment are inherited by the offspring and
keep on adding over a period of time. These
changes lead to the origin of new species.
LAMARKS POSTULATES:

⦿1.New needs: There are changes occurring

in the environment that creates new needs,
these allow them to adapt better to the
changed environment. These efforts lead to
a change in habits or behaviour. 
⦿2.Acquisition of new characters or organs:
 the new characters can be acquired in two ways- 
By use and disuse of organs. Continuous use or disuse of
an organ can lead to the keep the organs functional and
efficient or a gradual reduction in size and disappearance.
Example of such structures are the vestigial organs.
3. Effect of environment. Changes in
temperature, light, medium, food etc.
influence the functioning and behavior of the
organisms. These changes in functioning
and behavior changes lead to development of
new characters. 

4. Inheritance of acquired characters. The

characters acquired by the organism are
inherited to the next generation. Thus in
every generation new characters are added
and the species gets modified to a new one.
EVIDENCES IN FAVOR OF
LAMARCKISM 
1.Evolution of long neck in Giraffe.

According to Lamarck, Giraffes evolved from

deer like ancestors. These organisms had
short neck and fore limbs and grazed on
grass. As the climatic conditions changed the
rich vegetation changed to few trees. The
leaves of these trees were the only source of
food for these Giraffes. The ancestors of the
Giraffe had to stretch their neck to obtain
the leaves on the trees.
2.Evolution of feet of modern horse. They
developed the power of fast running to
protect themselves from enemies. Thus
gradually there was lengthening of limbs and
the middle digit with the reduction of other
digits. 
3.Evolution of snakes. 
According to Lamarck, the ancestors of snakes
were limbed and lizard-like. They lived in
thick jungles. Out of fear of mammals, these
snakes started creeping on jungle floor and
living in narrow crevices or burrows.
4.Webbed feet in aquatic birds.
 Aquatic birds like ducks, swans and geese,
etc., have arisen from  terrestrial ancestor
by developing web between the toes for
wading in water (adaptation to aquatic mode
of life-continuous use).
DARWINISM
THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION 
BY CHARLES ROBERT DARWIN & ALFRED RUSSEL
WALLACE

⦿Theory was based on– animals and plants in

Galapagos islands, observation on animal
distribution, analysis from data in essay of human
population and  controlled breeding and artificial
selection in domestic animals.
DARWIN'S POSTULATES

⦿1.Overproduction: All living beings have an

inherent tendency to produce offspring of
their own kind in large number for the
perpetuation of their race.

For example: A Paramecium divides three

times in 48 hours. If all its offspring survive
and multiply, in five years the mass of
paramecia will be equal to ten thousand times
the mass of earth. 
⦿2.There is limited food and space. 
The space in the universe remains constant.
The ultimate source of food for plants and
animals also remains constant. Thus, the
carrying capacity of the environment does not
allow the population to grow indefinitely.
⦿3.Struggle for existence–
⦿According to Darwin individuals multiply in geometric
ratio whereas space and food availability
remains constant, so there is an intense competition
and three fold struggle for existence.  
 THREE TYPES OF STRUGGLE
(a) Intraspecific struggle : This is struggle
between the individuals of the same species. This
is the toughest form of struggle as the needs of the
individuals of the same species are identical. 

(b) Interspecific struggle: This is the struggle

between the individuals of different species. 

(c) Struggle with the environment: This struggle

of living beings is with the changes of environment
such as heat, cold, drought, flood, storm, famine,
light, food and shelter, etc. 
4.Variations
Variation is the law of nature. This leads them to
change in accordance with the conditions to
utilise the natural resources and survive
successfully. 
5.Natural selection and survival of the fittest. 

According to Darwin nature selects only those

individuals which are with more favourable
variations and are best adapted to the
environment. The less fit and unfit organisms
are left out by selection. This sorting out of
individuals with useful variations was
called natural selection by Darwin
and survival of the fittest by Wallace. 
6.Inheritance of useful variations:
The individuals which survive the struggle for
existence transmit their useful variations to
the offspring, which will also prove to be fit.
Thus offsprings of selected individual are
born fit to the environment.  
7.Formation or origin of
new species. 
Darwin suggested the
appearance of new
variations in every
generation. These
variations keep on
accumulating and after a
number of generations,
the offsprings become
markedly different
forming a new species.
Origin of new species by
gradual modification of
older ones is
called speciation. 
EVIDENCES IN SUPPORT OF DARWINISM
1.Artificial Selection: By controlled breeding
and selection for several generations, many
new varieties of plants and new species,
races or breeds of domestic animals have
been developed.
2.Mimicry and protective
coloration: Mimicry and
protective colouration
as seen in certain
animals can be achieved
only by gradual changes
occuring side by side
both in the model and
mimic occupying the
same area. 
3.Correlation between position of nectaries
in flowers and length of Proboscis of
pollinating insects: This relation between
two different organisms evolve gradually and
can be explained by natural selection. 
CRITICISM OF DARWINISM 

1.Darwin was not clear about the sources of

variations and mechanisms of natural
selection.  
2.Inheritance of small variations: Darwin
stated that small variations formed the raw
materials for evolution. However this can
happen in only fully functional organs, for
ex. the inheritance of the wing of bird in its
initial stage when it was not of any
advantage to the organism could not be
explained.
3.Existence of vestigial organs: According to
Darwin, only useful organs are selected and
inherited. Then presence of vestigial organs
that are functionless  could not be
explained. 
4.Overspecialization: Overspecialisation of
some structures like antlers and tusks of
elephants becomes a hindrance to these
organisms. This fact that these structures
that were hindrance to the organism being
inherited could not be explained.
5. Darwin explained the survival of the fittest
and not the arrival of the fittest. 
NEODARWINISM
THE MUTATION THEORY
BY HUGO DEVRIES
-according to which new species arose due to
appearance of sudden inheritable changes.
According to this the origin of species is based on :
1.Genetic variability 
2.Isolation 
3.Natural selection 
4.Genetic basis of adaptation 
5.Speciation 
Genetic variability and natural selection are
considered as the main forces of evolution. 
VARIATIONS AND ITS CAUSES
Variation
- is a process whereby closely related organisms
differ among themselves. No two individuals look
alike, this is called variation.

CAUSES OF VARIATIONS  
1.Environmental conditions or Somatogenic
variations : Changes in expression of genes of
somatic cells, these are non-inheritable.
 
2.Changes in gene pattern or Germinal or
blastogenic variations: Changes in the germplasm
or chromosomes of gametes, these are heritable.
SOURCES OF VARIATIONS 

⦿1.MUTATIONS 
2.RECOMBINATION 
3.MIGRATION- genetic drift, gene flow 
4.HYBRIDISATION 
5.SELECTION
 SOURCES OF VARIATION: MUTATION
⦿A sudden hereditary change in
the genetic make-up of an
organism other than which
occurs by the simple
recombination of genes.
⦿All alleles for a particular trait
originated as a result of
mutations, and have been
maintained in the gene pool as
a result of sexual
reproduction.
⦿A gene pool is the complete
set of unique alleles in a
species or population.
SOURCES OF VARIATION: RECOMBINATION
Recombination
⦿results due to sexual reproduction bringing
about genetic diversity.
⦿The gene mixing that occurs during sexual
reproduction is termed as genetic
recombination.
⦿Recombination does not change the
frequency of alleles directly, but a new
member has a unique combination of genes.
Thus having unique characteristics superior
to others.
SOURCES OF VARIATION: MIGRATION
⦿Migration or movement of individuals from
one place or region to the other  results in
alleles being added or subtracted from a
local population.
GENETIC DRIFT AND GENE FLOW

Genetic Drift
⦿Changes in the allele frequency from one
generation to the next simply due to
“chance”
⦿Gene flow is the movement of alleles from
one population to another as a result of
interbreeding between the members of the
two populations.
SOURCES OF VARIATION: HYBRIDISATION

⦿It is the intermingling of genes of two

populations of a species which are normally
separate. This occurs by migration or
artificial cross breeding.
SOURCES OF VARIATION: SELECTION
⦿Selection is the process where the organisms
that are better adapted to the environment
survive and reproduce. These organisms then
pass on their successful characteristics to the
next generation.