Learning Theories

Identify and apply the various theories of learning in the classroom situations
Learning Theories

 Learning theories are set of conjectures and hypotheses that explain the process of learning or how learning
takes place.
 These theories explains that children take an active role in the learning process. As the learner interact with
the world around them, they continually add new knowledge, build upon existing knowledge, and adapt
previously held ideas to accommodate new information.

 Behaviorist (behaviorism
 Cognitivist (cognitivism)
 Constructivist (constructivism)
 Three basic approaches to Learning Theories (Akdeniz,
2016)

Behaviorism Depicts observable and measureable

aspects of human behavior. All behaviors
Cognitive processes and are directed by stimuli. Behaviors can be
activities such as measured, trained and changed.
processing information,
mental representations,
guesses, expectations are Cognitivism
accepted as bases in the
interpretation of learning.

Constructivism
Learners build knowledge out of their experiences and ideas. This
knowledge is shared and enhanced through interaction with
significant others.
I. Behaviorism/Associative Learning Theory Approach

 Learners must be actively engaged and rewarded immediately for their involvement in the activity in order
to achieve learning (Sotto, 2007) Learning must be and outright praise is given to increase behavior.
 John B. Watson – Father of Behaviorism. Believed that human behavior is prompted by specific stimuli.
 Burrhus Frederic Skinner – originators of Behaviorist approach to learning. He believed that behavior is
controlled through positive and negative consequences.
 Ivan Pavlov – behavior is acquired to conditioning. Conditioning is an established manner that occurs
through interaction with the environment.
 Two major types of conditioning: Operant and Classical Conditioning
Beliefs of Behaviorist Approach

 It operates on the principle of “stimulus-response.”

 Behavior is observable and measureable
 It prefers actual behavior as an indicator of learning.
1.1 Ivan Petrovich Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning

 Type of conditioning asserts that an individual learn when a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired
with an unconditioned stimulus until a neutral stimulus evokes a conditioned/desired response.

Features of Classical Conditioning

Unconditioned stimulus Automatically produces an emotional or physiological response.
Unconditioned response Natural occurring emotional response.
Neutral stimuli Stimuli that do not elicit a response.
Conditioned stimulus Evokes emotional or physiological response after being conditioned.
Conditioned response Learned response from a previously neutral condition.
 Principles of Learning in Classical Conditioning

Acquisition. Process by which the conditioned response is acquired from the experience of another
person.

Stimulus-generalization. process by which the conditioned response is transferred to other stimuli

similar to the original conditioned stimulus

Stimulus-discrimination. Process by which the conditioned response is transferred to other stimuli

different from the original conditioned stimulus. If generalization is a reaction to similarities,
discrimination is a reaction to differences.

Extinction. Process by which a conditioned response is lost.

1.2. Burrhus Frederic Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
and Reinforcement

 This type of conditioning stresses the use of pleasant and unpleasant consequences to control the occurence
of behavior.

 Learners tend to repeat the behavior that led to favorable outcomes and suppress those that produced
unfavorable results. In operant conditioning, we often hear and use the words reinforcer and reinforcement.

 In Skinnerian terms, a reinforcer is a stimulus, whereas reinforcement is the effect of this stimulus.
Type of Reinforcer

1. Primary reinforcer. A stimulus that is related to both biological and psychological needs such as
food, clothing, shelter, warmth, human touch, etc.

2. Secondary reinforcer. A stimulus that reinforces a behavior after being previously associated with
primary reinforcer. It includes money, grades in school, tokens, etc.

3. Positive reinforcer. A stimulus is added to a situation or event to strengthen a behavior.

4. Negative reinforcer . A stimulus is withdrawn to a situation or event to strengthen a behavior.

Schedules of reinforcement

1. Fixed ratio (FR). This reinforcement is dispensed following a constant number desired behaviors.

2. Fixed Interval (FI). This reinforcement is dispensed following a constant amount of desired time.

3. Variable Ratio (VR). This reinforcement is dispensed following a varying amount of trials.

4. Variable Interval (VI). This reinforcement is dispensed following a varying amount of time.
Types of Reinforcement

Verbal
Physical
Nonverbal
Activity
Token
 Consumable
 Principles of Learning in Operant Conditioning

Principle of Contracts. The relevant behavior is identified, then the teacher and the learner decide on the terms
of the contract.

Principle of Consequences. Consequences happen after the “target” behavior occurs.

Principle of Reinforcement. Negative reinforcement increases the probability of a response that removes or
prevent an adverse condition.

Principle of Extinction. Punishment involves presenting a strong stimulus that decreases the frequency of a
particular response. Punishment is effective in quickly eliminating undesirable behaviours.

Premack Principle or “Grandma Rule.” Less derived activities can be increased by looking at them to do
more desired activities.
1.3. Edward Lee Thorndike’s Connectionism.

 It means selecting and connecting constitute learning. Prior to Skinner’s operant conditioning, which
reinforces behavior.

 Thorndike calls this connectionism instrumental conditioning, which explains that there is a probability for a
behavior to occur again when followed by a positive experience.

 This idea is also explained in Thorndike’s main tenet, the “Law of Effect.”
 Principles of Learning in Connectionism

Multiple Responses. This refers to a variety of responses that would lead to a conclusion or arrival of an
answer.

Law of Set and Attitude. This explains that prior instruction/experience affects a given task

Law of Readiness. This law explains that interfering with oral directed behavior causes frustration. It further
explains that making someone to do somethine that he or she does not want to do is also frustrating.

Law of Exercise. This law explains learning by doing. Below are the two tenets of the law of exercise.
• Law of Use. connections between stimulus and response are reinforced as they are used.
• Law of Disuse. connections between a stimulus and response are weakened when practice is discontinued.
 Principles of Learning in Connectionism

(Continuation)

Law of Effect. This law explains that reward reinforces a behavior, whereas punishment decreases its
occurrence.

Halo Effect. This law describes the “physical attractiveness stereotype” and the “what is beautiful is good”
principle. It means that the teacher’s impression of the learner’s physical attributes influences how he or she
feels and thinks about the learner’s character.
II. Cognitivism Approach

 Behavioral psychology is based on factual and procedural rules, rewards, and punishment.

 It gives way to cognitive psychology, which is based on models for making sense of real-life experiences
and how we receive and interpret information.

 In a cognitivist approach, cognitive processes and activities such as processing information, mental
representations, guesses, and expectations are accepted as bases in the interpretation of learning.
Beliefs of Cognitivist Approach

 It focuses on memory as the storage and retrieval of information.

 It prefers to concentrate on analyzing cognitive processes.

 It considers schema as essential in learning.

2.1 Edward Chance Tolman’s Latent Learning –
Place Learning.

 This theory was first introduced by Hugh Blodgett, who made use of the
paradigm of learning without reinforcement. Tolman, on the other hand, captured
the idea and developed studies on "latent learning."

 According to this theory, learning occurs in situations where there is no certain

reward because of the presence of "cognitive maps.“
2.2 David Ausubel’s Meaningful Verbal Learning
Theory.

 According to Ausubel's theory, learners learn new information-whole to pieces-

through direct exposure to information rather than discovery. In short, learning
is gained through deductive reasoning.
Two Dimensions Of Learning Process

Reception Learning Discovery Learning

• In reception learning, learners receive the • In Discovery learning, learners focus on Identifying
information from the teacher therefore, the the key ideas and work out to store this information on
teacher should present ideas or concepts to the their own. Therefore the teacher should expose
learners in a well - organized manner. learners to varied activities.
2.3 Jerome Bruner’s Discovery Learning
Theory/Inquiry Method/Theory of Instruction

 This theory, as opposed to Ausbel’s theory of meaningful verbal learning,

emphasizes that learning is more meaningful to learners when they have the
opportunity to interact among themselves and with their environment through
conducting experiments, exploring and manipulating materials and equipment,
wrestling with questions, and finding solutions to their questions.
2.4 Wolfgang Kohler’s Insight Learning/Problem-
solving Theory

 Rooted to “Gestalt Theory” where an individual evaluates information as a

whole rather than receiving it in Isolation.

 Emphasizes that learners have the capacity to determine and understand the
nature of any given phenomenon in a bigger view.
2.5 George A. Miller’s Theory of Data Processing

 Grounded on Edward C. Tolman’s latent learning.

 Emphasized that information is the basic means of learning and explains learning
in terms of the memory system.

 Focuses on how information goes into the memory and how it is stored and
retrieved as the need arises.
Three Main Elements of Information Processing

1. Information stores. It refers to the place where information is stored. It is composed of the
following three different types of memory.

1.1 Sensory record

1.2 Short Term Memory (Processor)
1.3 Long Term Memory
1.3.1 Semantic Memory
1.3.2 Recollectional Memory
1.3.3 Operational Memory
Three Main Elements of Information Processing

2. Cognitive Processes. It refers to the mental activities that help in

transferring information from one memory to another such as:

2.1 Attention
2.2 Perception
2.3 Repetition
2.4 Coding
2.5 Storing
2.6 Retrieving
Three Main Elements of Information Processing

3. Executive Cognition or Cognition Information. It refers to the

harmonization between information stores and cognitive processes for
data processing.
2.6 Richard Atkinson’s and Richard Shiffrin’s
Information Processing Theory.

 This theory describes how information is processed into memory so

that learners get the best out of the stored information.

 Memory is the central point for learning, which is the ability to store
information that can be used at a later time.
Stages of Human Memory

1. Sensory Memory (SM).

 This stage utilizes all the different senses such as olfactory, auditory, sight, smell,
and touch in capturing information.

 Senses must be functional because they have help encode captured information
that will be transferred to the short term memory.
Stages of Human Memory

2. Short Term Memory (STM)

 This stage reflects information through processes of attention and perception

transferred by the sensory memory.
 The STM’s role is to process information perceived by the sensory memory. It is
said to be the temporary storage of information because the short term memory is
working in progress while filtering the most important information to be stored in
the Long term memory (LTM).
Stages of Human Memory

3. Long Term Memory (LTM)

 It is the permanent storage of information related to the different areas of life and
is activated when information is needed.
 It is said that when we recall information, we call on our LTM to help us
remember things because it is the one that is activated during the retrieval phase.
Three Components of LTM According to Tulving
(1993)

1. Episodic. It is the recall of the particular time and place, events, and dates of one’s personal
experience.

2. Procedural. It is the recall of specific skills or steps in completing a task or refers to “Knowing
how”.

3. Semantic. It is the recall of general facts, principles, and concepts needed to answer standard
questions.
Causes of Forgetting

1. Retrieval Failure. It explains that forgetting is due to the inability to recall information.

2. Decay Theory. It explains that forgetting is due to the failure of using information. Information
gradually fades when it is not utilized.

3. Interference Theory. It explains that forgetting is due to the influence of other learning.
2.7 Allan Paivio’s Dual-Coding Theory

 This theory affirms that when two or more modalities are used in teaching-
learning, it is likely that learners learn better and faster.

 Upholds the Principle of individual differences and learning styles and addresses
children with special needs.
Hierarchy of Learning

1. Signal Learning
2. Stimulus-response Learning
3. Chaining/Motor-Verbal Response
4. Verbal Association
5. Discrimination Learning
6. Concept Learning
7. Principle Learning (Rule Learning)
8. Problem Solving
9 Events of Instruction

1. Gaining Attention (Reception)

2. Informing Learner’s of the objective/s (Expectancy)
3. Stimulating recall of prior learning (Retrieval)
4. Presenting the stimulus (Selective Perception)
5. Providing learning guidance (Semantic Encoding)
6. Eliciting performance (Responding)
7. Providing Feedback (Reinforcement)
8. Assessing performance (Retrieval)
9. Enhancing retention and transfer (Generalization)
 Types of Transfer of Learning

Specific- Learning is transferred to General- Learning is transferred to

similar situations dissimilar situations.

Lateral- The learner is able to perform a Vertical- The learner is able to learn
new task at about the same level. more advance or complex skills.
III. Constructivism Approach

 The constructivism approach is anchored on Jean Piaget’s Cognitive

Constructivism and Lev Vygotsky’s Social Constructivism.

 Constructivism advocates that learners build knowledge out of their experiences

and ideas.

 This knowledge is then shared and enhanced through interaction with significant
others.
Beliefs of Constructivism

 Society and culture affect leaning.

 Learning involves community engagements.

 Social interaction is equally important because of the characteristic of

learners as social learners.
3.1 Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Constructivism

 This theory stresses that learners take active roles in understanding,

creating and making sense of information in terms of developmental
stages, developmental task and learning style.
3.1 Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Constructivism

1. There are things that learners can and cannot understand at different ages.
2. Learners develop cognitive abilities through developmental stages.
3. Learners fit in new experiences into their existing schema (assimilation).
4. Learners alter existing schema to integrate their new experiences
(accommodation).
3.2 Lev Semanovich Vygotsky’s Social Constructivism

 This theory emphasizes that learning is built through social

encounters with peers and adults.

 Social Interaction vis-à-vis culture is vital in the learning process.

3.2 Lev Semanovich Vygotsky’s Social Constructivism

1. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). It refers to the gap between actual and potential
development.
2. Scaffolds (SF). It is a competent assistance extended to the learners as they begin the journey of
learning.
3. Social Interaction (SI). It refers to the frequent interaction of learners with other people that
influence learning.
4. More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). It refers to significant others that learners look for when
in doubt.
3.3 Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

 This theory is simply known as the “Voovoo or Bobo Doll”

experiment.
 Social learning theory encompasses attention, memory, and
motivation, it serves as a bridge between behaviorist and cognitive
learning theories.
3.3 Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

According to Bandura, models are classified as:

1. Real life or direct modeling.

2. Symbolic modeling.
3. Synthesized modeling.
4. Abstract modeling.
Concepts in Social Learning Theory According to
Bandura

1. Vicarious Learning. Learning is acquired from observing the consequences of

other’s behavior.

2. Self-regulated learning. Learning occurs when learners observe, assess, and

judge their own behavior against their own standards.
Four Phases of Observational Learning According to
Bandura

1. Attention
2. Retention
3. Motor Reproduction Process
4. Motivational Process
3.4 Jean Lave and Wenger’s Situated Learning

 This theory posits that learners learn in particular situations and

contexts in which the nature of the situation significantly impacts the
process of learning.
 Learning involves social relationships and co-participation exist
between and among learners.
Other related theories significant to learning.

1. Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

 This theory postulates that persons have capacity to possess all

intelligences in varying degrees because of the influence of both
heredity and environment.
 Intelligence defined as the overall mental ability of a learner.
Other related theories significant to learning.

2. Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Intelligence

 This theory believes that learner learn even outside the classroom.
The environment is the best classroom for them.
 Learners are encouraged to explore the outside world to give meaning
to their learnings.
Kinds of Intelligence according to Robert Sternberg

 Practical Intelligence. The ability to do well in formal and informal

educational settings; this is also known as “street smart” individuals.
 Experiential Intelligence. The ability to deal with current situation
so that novel situations that may arise in the future are easily handled.
 Componential Intelligence. The ability to process metacognition and
knowledge-acquisition components effectively.
 Other related theories significant to learning.

3. Wilhelm Wundt’s Structuralism

 This theory assumes the discovery structure of the mind is built upon the
basic elements of ideas and sensation and could only be completed through
introspection. Introspection is self-examination of one’s thoughts, memories,
perceptions, and motivations (Zhou & Brown, 2015)
4. William James’ Functionalism
 This theory examines how the mind functions and the mental processing that
leads to adaptive behavior.
Other related theories significant to learning.

5. Kurt Lewin’s “Life Space” and “Field Theory”

 Life space refers to reality such as needs, aspirations, desires, and goals.
 Field theory refers to the functions of both of person and environment.
6. Daniel Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence
 This theory highlights the role of emotions in the development of an individuals’
personality, which eventually affects the progress of learning and behavior.
Other related theories significant to learning.

7. David Kolb’s Experiential Learning

This theory focuses on constructing knowledge as a result of
one’s reflective experience, which serves as the main driving
force in learning.
IV. Connectivism Approach

 Is self-directed learning where learners learn on their own with the use of
computer aided construction or (CAI).
 Search, explore, and navigate information mostly with internet connectivity and it
is the current way of learning, most especially in this time of new normal.
 Learners are engaged in modular lessons conducted through synchronous and
asynchronous modalities where learners work at their own pace.