Unit I

Prof. P.M.Gumble
• Structure of an atom
• The protons and neutrons make up the
nucleus of the atom, which is surrounded
by the electrons belonging to the atom.
The atomic number of an element
describes the total number of protons in
its nucleus.

• Neutral atoms have equal numbers of

protons and electrons. However, atoms
may gain or lose electrons in order to
increase their stability and the resulting
charged entity is called an ion.
Protons
• Protons are positively charged subatomic particles. The charge of a proton is 1e,
which corresponds to approximately 1.602 × 10-19 C
• The mass of a proton is approximately 1.672 × 10-24
• Protons are over 1800 times heavier than electrons.
• The total number of protons in the atoms of an element is always equal to the
atomic number of the element.
Neutrons
• The mass of a neutron is almost the same as that of a proton i.e. 1.674×10-24
• Neutrons are electrically neutral particles and carry no charge.
• Different isotopes of an element have the same number of protons but vary in the
number of neutrons present in their respective nuclei.
Electrons
• The charge of an electron is -1e, which approximates to -1.602 × 10-19
• The mass of an electron is approximately 9.1 × 10-31.
• Due to the relatively negligible mass of electrons, they are ignored when
calculating the mass of an atom.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ru032Mfs
fig
Electric Charge
• The two types of electric charges are: Positive and Negative,
commonly carried by charge carriers protons and electrons.
• Measuring Electric charge
• The electric charge is measured using coulomb.
• “One coulomb is the quantity of charge transferred in one
second.”
• Mathematically, the definition of a coloumb is represented as:
Q = I.t
In the equation, Q is the electric charge, I is the electric current
and t is the time.
What is current Electricity?
 Current electricity is defined as the flow of electrons from one
section of the circuit to another.
 When two bodies at different potentials are linked with a wire,
free electrons stream from Point 1 to Point 2, until both the
objects reach the same potential, after which the current stops
flowing. Until a potential difference is present throughout a
conductor, current runs.

.
 Voltage (V)
 Voltage is defined as the energy requires to moves the
unit charge from one point to another.

 It is measured in volts and represented by the symbol V.

The voltage is caused by the electric and the magnetic
field.
 Voltage (V)
 Voltage is defined as the energy requires to moves the unit charge
from one point to another.

 It is measured in volts and represented by the symbol V. The voltage

is caused by the electric and the magnetic field.
 Voltage Definition: Voltage is defined as the electric potential
difference between two points
 The mathematical representation of voltage is as follows: V
Voltage (V) & EMF
Voltage (V)
 Voltage (V)
 A battery converts chemical energy into electrical energy,
producing a voltage—i.e., a difference in electric potential
—across its two terminals.
 A resistor is a component that creates a specified amount
of resistance to electric current.
 When we connect the two terminals of a resistor to the
two terminals of a battery, charge carriers move through
the circuit, and we call this electric current.
 Voltage (V)
 Voltage conveys the ability to do the work of moving
charge from one point to another

 The voltage is developed between the ends (i.e. the

cathode and anode) of the source.

 The potential of the positive endpoint of the source is

higher as compared to the negative points.
 Electric Current
 Electric current is defined as the rate of flow of negative
charges of the conductor.
 In other words, the continuous flow of electrons in an
electric circuit is called an electric current.
 The conducting material consists a large number of free
electrons which move from one atom to the other at
random.
 Electric Current
 a wire is said to carry a current of one ampere when
charge flows through it at the rate of one coulomb per
second.
 When an electrical potential difference is applied across
the metallic wire, the loosely attached free electrons start
moving towards the positive terminal of the cell shown in
the figure below.
 This continuous flow of electrons constitutes the electrical
current. The flow of currents in the wire is from the
negative terminal of the cell to the positive terminal
through the external circuit.
 Electric Current
 The magnitude of electric current is measured
in coulombs per second. 
 The SI unit of electric current is Ampere and is denoted by
the letter A.
 Electric Energy
 We can define electrical energy as the energy generated
by the movement of electrons from one point to another.

 The movement of charged particles along/through a

medium (say wire) constitute current or electricity.

Mathematically:
E = QV
Where,
Q is charge
V is the potential difference
 Units of Electric Energy
 The basic unit of electrical energy is the joule or watt-
second.
 An electrical energy is said to be one joule when one
ampere of current flows through the circuit for a second
when the potential difference of one volt is applied across
it.
 Units of Electric Energy
 The commercial unit of electrical energy is the kilowatt-
hour (kWh) which is also known as the Board of trade unit
(B.O.T).

1 kwh = 1000 × 60 × 60 watt – second

1 kwh = 36 × 105 Ws or Joules

Generally, one kwh is called one unit.

 Electric Power
 Electric power is the rate at which work is done or energy
is transformed into an electrical circuit.

 Simply put, it is a measure of how much energy is used in

a span of time.

 Denoted by P and measured using the SI unit of power is

the watt or one joule per second.

 Electric power is commonly supplied by sources such as

electric batteries and produced by electric generators.
 Electric Power
The formula for electric power is given by
P=VI
where,
P is the power
V is the potential difference in the circuit
I is the electric current
 Electric Power
Power can also be written as
P=

P=
 Find the electric Bill per month if the cost per unit (1
kWH) is Rs 7

Sr. Appliances Quantity Rating Hours/Day

No.
1 Tube light 4 40 W each 5 Hour each
Bulbs 2 15 W each 6 Hour each
1 40 W each 2 Hour
Geyser 1 2 kW 1 hour
fan 3 60 W each 8 Hour each
TV 1 100 W 4 Hour
Appliances Energy Consumption in
Watt Hour

Tube light 4 x 40 x 5 = 800 W

Bulbs 1 x 15 x 6 = 180 W
1 x 40 x2 = 80 W

Geyser 1 x 2000 x 1=2000 W

Fans 3 x 60 x 8 =1440 W

TV 1 x 100 x 4 =400 W

Total: 4900 W i.e. 4.9 kWH

A electric iron rated 750 watt is operated for 2 hours/day and
washing machinenrated of 400 watt is operated for 1
hour/day. If the cost of unit is Rs. 6 per kWh. Find the cost of
energy used to operate electric iron and washing machine for
30 days.

Monthly energy consumption = 1.9 x 30 = 57 kWH = 57 unit

Monthly Bill = 57 x 6 = Rs 342

What is Electrical Resistance?
• According to Ohm’s law, there is a relation between the
current flowing through a conductor and the potential
difference across it. It is given by,
• V ∝ I
• V = IR
Where,
V is the potential difference measured across the conductor
(in volts)
I is the current through the conductor (in amperes)
R is the constant of proportionality called resistance (in ohms)
Factors Affecting Electrical Resistance

The electrical resistance of a conductor is dependent on the

following factors:
• The cross-sectional area of the conductor
• Length of the conductor
• Length of the conductor
• The temperature of the conducting material

unit of resistance is ohm, The symbol for ohm is Ω.

A conductor is said to have a resistance of one ohm if it permits

one ampere current to flow through it when one volt is
impressed across its terminals
Electrical resistance is directly proportional to length (L) of the
conductor and inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area
(A). It is given by the following relation.

• R = ρL/A,
• where ρ is the resistivity of the material (measured in Ωm, ohm
meter)

What Is Resistivity?
Electric resistivity is defined as the electrical resistance offered per
unit length and unit cross-sectional area at a specific
temperature and is denoted by ρ.
Ohm’s Law Statement: Ohm’s law states that the voltage across a conductor
is directly proportional to the current flowing through it, provided all physical
conditions and temperature, remain constant.

Ohm’s Law Equation: V = IR, where V is the voltage across the conductor, I is
the current flowing through the conductor and R is the resistance provided
by the conductor to the flow of current.
Conductance and Conductivity

•  
Effect of temperature on Resistance

• Increase resistance of pure metal, hence have positive

temperature coefficient

• Increase resistance of alloys slightly, constant temperature of

coefficient.

• Decrease resistance of insulators. Negative temperature of

coefficient
 Resistance in Series
• When some conductors having resistances R1, R2 and R3 etc. they are said to be
connected in series. It can be proved that the equivalent resistance or total
• resistance between points A and D is equal to the sum of the three individual
resistances. are joined end-on-end
• current is the same through all the three conductors
• but voltage drop across each is different due to its different resistance and is given by
Ohm’s Law
• and (iii) sum of the three voltage drops is equal to the voltage applied across the
three conductors.
V = V1 + V2 + V3
• V = IR
• where R is the equivalent resistance of the series combination= IR1 + IR2 +
IR3
• R = R1 + R2 + R3

• same current flows through all parts of the circuit.

• different resistors have their individual voltage drops.
• voltage drops are additive.
• applied voltage equals the sum of different voltage drops.
• resistances are additive.
• powers are additive.
Resistances in Parallel

• Three resistances, as joined in Fig. are said to be connected in parallel. In this case
(i) p.d. across all resistances is the same
(ii) current in each resistor is different and is given by Ohm’s Law and
(iii) the total current is the sum of the three separate currents.

 
Electric Circuits and Network Theorems

• Circuit: A circuit is a closed conducting path through which an

electric current either flows or is intended flow.
• Parameters: The various elements of an electric circuit are
called its parameters like resistance, inductance and
capacitance.
• Liner Circuit: A linear circuit is one whose parameters are
constant i.e. they do not change with voltage or current.
• Non-linear Circuit: It is that circuit whose parameters change
with voltage or current.
• A bilateral circuit is one whose properties or characteristics
are the same in either direction.
• Electric Network: A combination of various electric elements,
connected in any manner
• Passive Network is one which contains no source of e.m.f. in it.
• Active Network is one which contains one or more than one
source of e.m.f.
• Node is a junction in a circuit where two or more circuit
elements are connected together.
• Branch is that part of a network which lies between two
junctions.
• Loop: It is a close path in a circuit in which no element or node
is encountered more than once.
• Mesh: It is a loop that contains no other loop within it.
Kirchhoff’s Laws
• Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a point (or junction) is zero.

it simply means that the total current leaving a junction is equal to the total current entering that
junction

Assuming the incoming currents to be positive and the outgoing currents negative

I1 + (−I2) + (−I3) + (+ I4) + (−I5) = 0

I1 + I4 = I2 + I3 + I5

incoming currents = outgoing currents

ΣI=0
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

• The algebraic sum of the products of currents and resistances

in each of the conductors in any closed path (or mesh) in a
network plus the algebraic sum of the e.m.fs. in that path is
zero.

• In other words, Σ IR + Σ e.m.f. = 0

• If we start from a particular junction and go round the mesh

till we come back to the starting point, then we must be at the
same potential with which we started. Hence, it means that all
the sources of e.m.f. met on the way must necessarily be
equal to the voltage drops in the resistances, every voltage
being given its proper sign, plus or minus.
 Determination of Voltage Sign:
• In applying Kirchhoff’s laws to specific problems, particular attention
should be paid to the algebraic signs of voltage drops and e.m.fs.,
otherwise results will come out to be wrong.

•Sign of Battery E.M.F.

A rise in voltage should be given a + ve sign and a fall in voltage a −ve
sign.

•Sign of IR Drop
If we go through a resistor in the same direction as the current, then
there is a fall in potential because current flows from a higher to a lower
potential. Hence, this voltage fall should be taken −ve.
Superposition Theorem
• Statement:
“In a network of linear resistances containing more than one
generator (or source of e.m.f.), the current which flows at any
point is the sum of all the currents which would flow at that
point if each generator where considered separately and all
the other generators replaced for the time being by
resistances equal to their internal resistances.”
• According to this theorem, if there are a number of e.m.fs.
acting simultaneously in any linear bilateral network, then
each e.m.f. acts independently of the others i.e. as if the other
e.m.fs. did not exist.

• The value of current in any conductor is the algebraic sum of

the currents due to each e.m.f.

• Similarly, voltage across any conductor is the algebraic sum of

the voltages which each e.m.f would have produced while
acting singly. In other words, current in or voltage across, any
conductor of the network is obtained by superimposing the
currents and voltages due to each e.m.f. in the network
• I1, I2 and I represent the values of currents which are due to
the simultaneous action of the two sources of e.m.f. in the
network. In Fig. (a) are shown the current values which would
have been obtained if left-hand side battery had acted alone.
Similarly, Fig. represents conditions obtained when right-hand
side battery acts
alone. By combining the current values of Fig. b and fig. c the
actual values of Fig. (a) can be obtained.

I1 = I1′ −I1′ ′, I2 = I2′ ′−I2´, I = I′ + I′ ′