Organisational Development

Input/Output Model
Inputs Transformation Outputs
Process
Environmental Interaction Organisational
Resources among key performance:
History organisational Goal
components: achievement
Strategy Task Resource
Individuals untilisation
Formal Adaptation
organisational Group
arrangements performance
Informal Individual
organisation behaviour and
affect
 Elaboration of Input/Output Model
Feature Nature
Inputs: * environment provides constraints, demands and opportunities
* resources facilitate the establishment and maintenance of structures, and activities of the
organisation
* history provides a background that validates the organisation, its structures, and activities
* strategy is a set of key decisions about the match of the organisation’s resources to the
opportunities, constraints, and demand in the environment within the context of history
* the effectiveness of the system’s performance is consistent with the goals of strategy.

Outputs * organisational performance indicates how well an organisation functions in comparison to

predefined measures that relates to goals, resources and adaptation
* group performance similarly indicates the ability of groups within the organisation to
function
* individual performance similarly indicates the ability of individuals within the organisation to
function

Transformation OD System Entity Entity Function

process: 1. Task 1. Task redefinition
2. Individuals 2. Resistance
3. Formal organisation 3. Control
4. Informal organisation 4. Power
ScheinType
classification that explains institutional deregularising
of psychological change
reregularising process
Disconfirmation Learning and change begins with dissatisfaction or frustration by data
Induction of Guilt or survival
anxiety
Creation of psychological safety
or overcoming learning anxiety
Cognitive redefinition through
behavioural deregularisation
Imitation & positive or defensive
identification with role model
Insight scanning
Personal and relational
reregularisation
Meaning and
that deny our
expectations/hopes. This process of denial must arouse “survival anxiety” or the feeling that
if we do not change, we shall fail to meet our needs or preset goals or ideas (survival guilt).
Survival guilt requires that we accept denying data to be relevant and valid. Learning
anxiety makes us react defensively because if we admit that something is wrong or
imperfect we fear we will lose our effectiveness, self esteem, or identity. Learning anxiety
must be dealt with to produce change through the creation of “psychological safety”.
Psychological safety can enable the rejection of discomfirming data. Effective management
requires that treatment from disconfirming data must be balanced by psychological safety.
This can occur through group working, systems to provide work pressure relief, providing
practice fields where errors provide a learning experience, breaking learning into
manageable steps, and the adoption of other techniques to reduce anxiety and increase
motivation.
Cognitive restructuring can assist motivation, but to do this existing patterns of behaviour
must be deregularised through motivation to change and the freedom to accept new
information. New information can be semantically redefined (to give words new meaning),
cognitively broadened (to prove broader meaning than supposed), new standards of
judgement or evaluation (shifting our criteria). This represents deep level learning processes,
or in terms of Argyris double loop learning.
The learner becomes captive to a hostile environment that may not drive the learning
process in a way that may be desirable according to some consensus. What new patterns of
behaviour should be established through the change?
A learner without role models scans the environment to seek role models to define a change
target. Learners may attempt to learn things that may not survive because they do not fit the
personality or culture of the learning system.
New behaviour should be congruent with the rest of the behaviour and personality of a
learner if disconfirmation and thus unlearning is not to occur. In personal regularisation of
patterns of behaviour, learners should not identify; they should scan to select appropriate
solutions. Relational regularisation of patterns occurs through group processes that
encourage the development of norms essential to group functioning.
 Actions able to stabilise the relationship between
Resistance, Control, and Power
Problem Need Action
Resistance Motivate change 1. Assure support of key power groups
2. Use leader behaviour to generate energy in support of
change
3. Use symbols and language
4. Build in stability

Control Manage the transition 1. Surface dissatisfaction with present state

2. Participation in change
3. Rewards for behaviour in support of change
4. Time and opportunity to disengage from the present
state

Power Shape the political 1. Develop and communicate a clear image of the future
dynamics of change 2. Use multiple and consistent leverage points
3. Develop organisational arrangements for the transition
4. Build in feedback mechanisms
 Harrison’s Open System Model
System Focus Inputs Transformation Outputs
Process

Organisational Organisational Goals, culture, Products, services,

resources technology, process, performance.
behaviour
Group Group Group composition, Products, services,
resources structure, technology; performance.
group behaviour process,
culture.

Individual Human Individual job, tasks; Products, services, ideas,

resources individual behaviour, performance; quality of
attitudes, orientation. work life; well being.
Organisation Matrix (including diagnosis)
System Focus Behavioural
Manifestation
Organisation Generally poor morale, pressure,
anxiety, suspicion, lack of
awareness of, or response to
change in environment.
Survey feedback, organ­isational
mirroring
Group Inappropriate working
relationships, atmosphere,
participation, poor under­standing
and acceptance of goals,
avoidance; inappro­priate
leadership style, leader not trusted,
re­spected; leader in conflict with
superiors.
Team building.
Individual Failure to fulfil individ­ual’s needs;
frustration responses;
unwillingness to consider change,
little chance of learning and
development.
Counselling, role analysis.
Process
Characteristics
Inadequacy of moni­toring
mechanisms. Form of
governance: such as degree
of bureaucratisation,
centralisation,
divisionalisation, stan­
dardisation. Stability, decline.
Change the processes.
Task requirements poorly
defined; inap­propriate
reporting procedures.
Process consultation.
Tasks too easy or too
difficult. Purpose of tasks
poorly defined.
Attitude and orientation
problems.
Job modifica­tion/enrichment.
Structure
Seen as a system
Purposes: system goals
poorly defined or
inappropriate; strategy
inappropriate and
misunderstood;
organisational struc­ture
inappropriate. Stakeholder
distribu­tion and ownership.
Size, complexity.
Change structure
Role relationships unclear or
inappropriate; leader’s role
overloaded.
Redesign work rela­tionships
(socio-technical systems),
autonomous working
groups.
Poor job definition.
Job redefinition.
Context
The setting
Power distribution and alignments.
Political orien­tation.. Environment:
geographical setting, mar­ket
pressures, labour mar­ket, physical
conditions, basic technology.
Change strategy, location, physical
setup, culture.
Insufficient resources, poor group
composition for cohesion,
inadequate physical setup,
personality clashes.
Change technology, lay­out, group
composition, culture.
Poor match of individual with job;
poor selection or promotion. Poor
incen­tives.
Personnel changes, im­proved
selection and pro­motion
procedures, improved training and
education, recognition and
remuneration alignment with
objectives.
Organisation Matrix (including diagnosis)
continued

System Behavioural Process Structure Context

Focus Manifestation Characteristics Seen as a system The setting
Inter-rela­
tionship
Inter-group Lack of effective Exchanges Relationships Locally distinct
co-op­eration between groups subject to chaos. cultures (different
between subunits, subject to chaos; Lack of values, attitudes,
conflict, excessive inefficiencies. integrated task beliefs, behaviour in
compe­tition, Required per­spective; each subgroup).
limited war, interactions subunit Reduce
failure to confront difficult to optimisation. psychological &
differences in achieve. Poor physical distance; ex­
priorities, Formalised communication change roles,
unresolved competition vs. structures. attachments, cross
feelings. cooperation. Poor Redefine functional social
Intergroup communication. responsi­bilities. overlay.
confrontation Change reporting
(with consultant as relationships,
3rd party) role improve
negotiation. coordination and
liaison.
 Resistance
Diagnosing resistance
* Parochial self interest
* Misunderstanding or lack of trust
* Different assessments
* Low tolerance for change
Dealing with resistance
* Education and communication
* Participation and involvement
* Facilitation and support
* Negotiation and agreement
* Manipulation and cooptation
* Explicit and implicit coercion
 Reducing Resistance
Approach in dealing with Situational Use
resistance

Education & Where there is a lack of information or inaccurate information and

communication analysis
Participation & Where the initiators do not have all the information they need to
involvement design the change.
Where others have considerable power to resist

Facilitation & support Where people are resisting because of adjustment problems
Negotiation & agreement Where some individual or group will clearly lose out in a change
Where the group has considerable power to resist

Manipulation & Where other tactics will not work

cooptation Where other tactics are too expensive

Explicit & implicit Where speed is essential

coercion Where the change initiators possess considerable power
 Effectiveness
Characteristic Output goals Internal system state
Attainment Success/failure Costs: efficiency, wastage, downtime
Human: satisfaction of pay, working
conditions, relations; motivation;
work effort; absenteeism, lateness,
turnover; health and safety
Flows Productivity; returns; % Products, ideas, information;
of target group satisfactory communications;
addressed. misunderstandings; accurate
information analysis
Adaptation
Size of organisation; support &
approval by community & public
bodies; public image; compliance
with standards in: legal,
regulatory, professional bodies;
market share, ranking
Resources; use of capacities to
exploit external opportunities;
ability to shape demand,
government action, behaviour of
others; control and learning
processes with change; flexibility
in handling crises & surprises.

Quality Number of rejects, Goal agreement & procedures; group Human capital; desirability of
returns, complaints; cohesion, cooperation; conflict as in clients; reputation of staff;
clients, customer strikes, stoppages, disputes. satisfying requirement;
satisfaction; service Trust; open communications & environmental constraints.
rating, work feelings; deemphasis on status
performance; impacts differences
on target population; Stakeholder decision participation;
diffusion of power & authority.
Compatibility of requirement to
system.

Innovation New counting, For development of human & group New products, services,
evaluation, or sampling resources; structures and processes. procedures; management practices;
methods; redefinition of new technologies
meaning of attainment.
 Questions on Criteria
Class Nature

Clients Who are they? What preferred organisational states? What are criteria of
preferred states? How do consultants facilitate to resolve
conflicts/ambiguities?

Goals Conditions and states to achieve goals as reflected in effectiveness criteria?

How do consultants facilitate to adopt additional criteria?

Stakeholders Favoured effectiveness criteria? Are there consensus criteria for powerful
stakeholders?
The Methodology
 Influence Diagram Cognitive Purpose

Real-world situation
needing change
tasks
& forces
Mission
Informal managing change by political
systems renewing balance of power
models S1 forces through cross group m1
negotiations
control resistance
strategic requirements to change
methodological m2 m3
intervention cognitive
Inquiry aim purpose
effectiveness strategies
 Cycle of Methodological Inquiry
Introduction and pre-evaluation S0 Current/Future state

Diagnosis
Exploration of situation
S8 & define inquiry S1 Define relevant
Evaluation of programme purposes systems S2
in current environment &
re-enforcement

Manage the Assess contexts S3

transition

Choose effectiveness S4
Confirmation of
stakeholder
Change & development participation &
activities S7 relevant system

Evaluation/selection
of models S6

Identify
targets & design
effectiveness models S5 Felt needs of
options participants
Steps in OD and their Action
Phase Step Action & Context
Current/ 1. Explore situation Exploration of organisational mission.
future state & purposes Consultation process, identifying
where the organisation is going and
what it wants to achieve.
Diagnosis 2. Define relevant Gather data. Identify stakeholders.
system Explore perspectives of the situation to
create system representations. Identify
structures and processes.
3. Assess contexts Outer contexts are sociopolitical,
economic, legal, technological and
competitive factors in environment.
Inner contexts concerned with internal
capacity for change. Identify
commodities of power and control
mechanisms. Identify input constraints.
4. Confirmation of Strategic change requires different
participation & views to be heard as part of the
relevant system process to win support and
commitment. Ensure participation of
appropriate stakeholders and confirm
relevant systems.
Explanation and tools
Human interaction with clients.
Throughout study, be aware of power,
control and possible resistance to
change aspects of situation.
Interviews. Use of diagramming
techniques like system maps, power
context diagrams, activity sequence
diagrams. Organisation matrix.
Brainstorming. SWOT analysis, force
field diagrams. Mind maps, multiple
cause diagrams.
.Stakeholder consultation. Techniques
to encourage participation. Explore
resistance to change.
 Steps in OD and their Action contin.
Phase Step Action & Context
Manage 5. Identify targets Change can cause confusion about
change & design models roles, responsibilities and decision
making channels. Public models of
change can be instrumental in
reducing this, and meaningful targets
and reinforcing milestones derive
from these.
Explore designs for deregularising
patterns of behaviour.
6. Evaluation Evaluate the models and associated
/selection of targets, and confirm selection with
models most important stakeholders/clients.
7. Change & Reregularising patterns of behaviour
development to reinforce change if it not to be
activities defeated by history. This can help
through (1) individuals should have a
personal stake and be accountable
for change; (2) new working
relationships and boundaries
between work groups to be
negotiated; (3) find ways of
recognising and rewarding desirable
behaviours.
Explanation and tools
Scan for targets and milestones - you
can refer to organisation matrix.
Consider needs of components of
system, evaluate conflicts &
tensions, actual against official
practices. Define effectiveness
criteria. Use control diagrams.
Refer to Schein classification
Consultation with major
stakeholders/clients.
Refer to Schein classification. Work
through a skeleton of the
organisation matrix. Tabulate
activities.
 Stakeholders

Service users
Stakeholders & Councillors
Primary Stakeholders () Agencies
Area Resource Managers (ARM) 
Deputy Area Resource Management (DARM)
Assistant ARM (AARM)
Senior Clerical Officers Sc3 (SCO) 
All staff in area offices and headquarters
System Map
 Organisation Matrix for the Social Services
Division of LCC
System Behavioural Process Structure Context
Focus Manifestation Characteristics Seen as a system The setting
Organisa Mixed morale Lack of Present systems and A political orien­tation. Uses basic
tion issues, anxiety, monitoring organisational technology. Distributed organisation.
suspicion, mechanisms. structure Inappropriate access points to
resistance to Bureaucratic, inappropriate, organisation.
change, lack of lack of computationally and Change culture strategy, address
awareness to standardisation. technically complex. buildings.
change in Decentralisation Change structure
environment. in progress.
Survey feedback Update new
from relevant progress
sources
Group Poor Task Role relationships Insufficient resources, personality
understanding and requirements unclear, priorities not clashes.
acceptance of poorly defined; established. Change technology, group composition,
goals, setting up inap­propriate Redesign work rela­ culture.
of new groups reporting tionships and working
creates tension, procedures to groups.
leadership style management.
addressed. Improve
Team building, consultation.
encourage
participation.
 Organisation Matrix for the Social Services Division of LCC

System Behavioural Process Structure Context

Focus Manifestation Characteristics Seen as a system The setting
Individual Unwillingness to Capacity for extra Inappropriate job Poor match of individual
consider change; failure work; purpose of description. with job; poor selection or
to fulfil individual tasks poorly defined. Job redefinition. promotion. Poor incen­tives.
needs. Job Personnel changes, im­
Counselling, role modifica­tion/enrichm proved, improved training
analysis. ent. and education, recognition
and remuneration
alignment with objectives.
Inter-rela­
tionship
Inter-group Lack of effective coop­ Exchanges between Lack of integrated Locally distinct cultures.
eration between area groups subject to task per­spective. Ex­change roles, cross
office and head office. chaos. Inefficiencies Poor functional social overlay.
Unresolved feelings. exist. Required communication
Change cultural interactions difficult structures.
differences, encourage to achieve due. Poor Redefine responsi­
cooperation communication. bilities.
Improve
coordination and
liaison.
Pressures on DCBC
Working conditions
and practices legislation Liverpool Authority
Policies

Disabled car badge Budget

charging Deficit

Media
Public
Agency Pressure

Public
awareness
Interest
Groups Note: strength of line indicates strength of influence
 Commodities of Power
Stakeholders Power Commodity
Service users Complaint, media support
Agencies Complaint; exceptionally: ministerial lobby
Councillors Public (elected) authority
Area Resource Managers (ARM) Role based administrative authority
Deputy Area Resource Management Role based administrative authority
(DARM) Role based administrative authority
Assistant ARM (AARM) Role based administrative authority
Senior Clerical Officers Sc3 (SCO) Formal and/or informal resistance
All staff in area offices and headquarters
 SWOT Analysis
Analysis Outcomes
Strengths In-house training facilities developed
Willingness by most to go forward
Weaknesses Lack of communication policy
Outdated procedures
Inappropriate structures
Inadequate technology
Low level of involvement with stakeholders

Opportunities Management/employee relations can be developed

New (improved) structures can be defined
Consultation can be improved
Motivation can be improved

Threats Resistance from staff likely

Budget constraints exist
Perceived likelihood of additional workload
 Force Field Diagram
Opportunity Driving Forces

Willingness Improved
Structure In-house to go Management- Improved Cultural
development training forward employee motivation integration
relations

Disabled Car Badge Charging

Poor Outdated Inappropriate Budget Staff

communications procedures structures constraints resistance

Restraining Forces of Existing System

Power Diagram – Admin Control
Agencies Dept. of Councillors
Transport

Other Local Head of Finance

Authorities Director of
Social Services
Finance
Officers
Head of
Head of Resources
Personnel Training
Deputy Area Managers Social
Resources Manager Services
Personnel Staff Division
Area Resource of LCC
Manager Training
Officers
All Staff members
Assistant
Area Resources
Senior Manager
Clerical Officers

Service Users
 Control Loop

Material skills Improved relations

Managerial skills Change Process: Improved consultation
Operations Implementation of DCBC Improved communication

Culturally X
determined Measures
effectiveness to evaluate
criteria Indication of effectiveness deviation output
Multiple Cause Diagram - Requirements of
Effectiveness
Implementation of DCBC

Need for
Newly culture change
Resistance defined Outdated
from staff structures procedures
redefined

Communication
policy development Development of in-house
training, staff development
& stakeholder involvement
Changed processes
culture

Improved manager-
employee relations

Improved
motivation

Effective
Implementation
of changes
Target Focus Map showing tasks at the organisational,
group, and individual focuses
Resistance to Change

Group focus

Organisational Team Consultation

focus building
Update
Survey Processes Work technology
feedback update redesign
Work groups
Structural Cultural established
redefinition adjustment

Update Buildings

Job
Regrading redefinition Individual
focus

Job Supervision &

enrichment staff development

Training/self-development
 Dealing with Resistance
Characteristic of Resistance Dealingto
withChange
Resistance
Consultation and communication Justify change to stakeholders. Generate valid
information. Letters to service users and agencies
indicating new terms. Implement marketing strategy
involving mass media.
Participation and involvement Implementation team to involve stakeholders. Provide
free informed choice for participation. More emphasis on
participation with service users and staff involvement in
transition.
Negotiation and agreement Create stakeholder commitment to choice of change.
Power groups to resist change include other staff members
and senior clerical officers. Regrading is to be negotiated
and agreed tasks defined. Negotiation with working party
in relation to management.
Explicit and implicit coercion Timescales defined and adhered to. Ensure that
management is in agreement with all that is involved.
Working practices are defined.
Facilitation and support Cultural change addressed. Retraining. Supervision and
staff development provision. Communication policy to
address role analysis. Structures set up to facilitate
support mechanisms.
Re-educate to manage and accept Retraining to occur in relation to awareness of issues.
change Generate new culture.
 Examining Power,Need
Attribute Control, Resistance to Change
Action
Resistance Motivate change 1. Gain support from Management
2. Assure support from key players
3. Develop staff care and communication
policy
4. Consultation with all involved
5. Regrading and job descriptions in
place
6. New skills/training development

Control Manage the transition 1. Present dissatisfaction addressed

2. Encourage participation in change
3. Recognition of positive behaviour
4. Time allowance to adjust

Power Shape the political dynamics of change 1. Resourcing seminars to continue

giving clear image of future
2. Mission statements addressed
3. Build in feedback mechanisms
4. Structures in place for transition
 The Plan
Targets Stakeholder Role Responsibility Decision making channels
involvement
Survey/feedback from Councillors, service Relay information to Councillors to
relevant sources users, head of resources, constituents; complete Head of Resources to
all staff, management survey; monitor progress; Management to
ensure quality service; All staff
collate information.
Update new processes Head of resources; Delegate to management - Head of resources to
management; staff redefine budget and Management to
allocations; monitoring - All staff to
consult staff and service Service users to management
users; similarly undertake
participation and feedback.
Change structures/ Director; head of Consultation with all staff Head or resources to
processes resources; management; involved; develop Management to
service users proposed structures in line All staff
with resource allocation;
participate and develop
new skills
Adaptability of Director; head of Budget allocation; physical Director to
buildings and resources; management; availability access to users; Head of resources to
locations addressed service users working alongside users; Management to
feedback and participation Service users to head of
resources
 Targets Stakeholder involvement
Supervision/team Management; all staff
building
Improve consultation Councillors; director; head Provide relevant information
of resources; management; and accept feedback; visit to
all staff; service users
Technology needs Head of resources; Budget allocation and
management; all staff
Job modification and Head of resources;
enrichment management;
Improved training Head of resources;
management; senior
clerical officers; all staff
Role Responsibility
Community policy
addressed - adopt
appropriate leadership style;
participate in community
policy
area offices & accept
feedback and action; consult
in area offices
equipment defined; set up
training programmes and
consult with staff of new
styles; participate in training
and development new skills
Attend committee cycle;
consult with personnel
management; consult with
personnel/all staff to
redefine job description;
discuss new roles and accept
new terms
Consult with management
and training section &
produce costings; identify
training needs and consult
with all staff; participate in
training
Decision making channels
All staff to
Management
As a network:
Councillors; director; head of
resources; management; all
staff; service users
Director to
Head of resources to
Management to
All staff
Director to
Head of resources to
Management to
Senior clerical officers
Head of resources to
management to both
Senior clerical officers and all
staff.