Chapter - 2 - IE 252

Chapter 2
Material and Manufacturing Properties
Chapter 2: Material and

1
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Manufacturing Properties - IE252
Chapter 2
Chapter 2: Material and Manufacturing Properties.
2.1 Material Properties
2.2 Importance of material properties in manufacturing
2.2.1 Forming from liquid state.
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2.2.2 Forming from solid state.
2.2.3 Joining processes
2.3 Effect of manufacturing processes on material properties.

2.4 Strength increase techniques in metals.
2.4.1 Hardening by solid-state phase transformation.
2.4.2 Strain hardening.
2.4.3 Dispersion hardening.
2.5 Classification of materials
2.6 Ferrous metals.
2.6.1 Steel classification based on the amount of alloying element
2.6.2 Steel classification based on its applications.
2.7 Cast Iron.
2.8 Nonferrous metals ……. 2
2.1 Material Properties
Material properties covers:
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* Physical properties, which include color, density, melting point, freezing
point, specific heat, heat of fusion, thermal conductivity, thermal expansion,
electrical conductivity, …etc.

* Chemical properties, e.g. corrosion resistance.
* Mechanical properties, e.g. reaction of material under mechanical
loading.
* Technological or manufacturing properties, which describe the suitability of
a material for given manufacturing process. The technological properties are
evaluated using different tests and special terms are used for these tests, e.g.
“formability”, “hardenability”, “cast- ability”, “electric or/and thermal
conductivity”, …etc. Detail description of these test may be found in literatures
[2.1] 3
Assigning Material For A Product ?
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* The suitability of the material for the given application. For example, plastic materials can
be used as electric or thermal insulation on some domestic utilities due to its electric and
thermal insulation. Copper metals are usually used to manufacture coolers and heat

exchangers of automotive industries due to high thermal conductivity and lightweight
compare to other metals.
* The suitability of the material for given manufacturing process, for example it is possible
to select a cheap material for a given product, but it may be too expensive to produce this
material by a given manufacturing process.
* The economical consideration should also be considered, as final decision for assigning a
material for a given product.
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Material properties changed using manufacturing processes: (forming from solid

state or liquid state)
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Forming from liquid state:
Melting phase, Shaping phase, Solidification phase:

In melting phase (there are single melting temp for pure metals and melting range
for alloys (mixture of solid and liquid metals))
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Material properties changed using manufacturing processes: (forming from solid state or
liquid state)
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Forming from liquid state:
In melting phase (there are single melting temp for pure metals and melting range for alloys

(mixture of solid and liquid metals))
During solidification of alloys, there is a change in volume associated with the transition from
liquid to solid states. This means, that the metal will be missing in the central of the
component as solidification starts at the outside of the component. Compensation for this is
established by placing risers (reservoirs of molten metal) on component during casting
process.
These riser/risers must be designed such that it solidifies last after component solidification.
Furthermore, increasing the solidification range, results in improper chemical composition 6
during melting metal, and will increases the risk of internal porosity, hot tearing, and
segregations.
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In melting phase (there are single melting temp for pure metals and melting range for
alloys (mixture of solid and liquid metals))

For example, cast iron has 2% contraction, while 3% for cast steel. Aluminum has
contraction allowance between 3.5-8.5%.
During solidification phase, solidification or grain growth start externally and end at
the part center. This result in harder external surface and soft or ductile in part inner
zone
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Forming from solid state:

The effects of material properties on metal forming processes starting from solid state can be
demonstrated clearly in mass-conserving processes, mass-reducing processes and/or joining
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processes.
Mass-reducing process (metal cutting):
Mass-conserving process (metal forming):

Mechanical basic process is a primary basic process in most metal forming processes. The
suitability of a metal to undergo plastic deformation without failure (material instability), is
measured by the material ductility.
The suitability of a material to undergoes plastic deformation without failure is obtainable from
the stress-strain curves of the tensile tests. For example, the strain at instability, the percent of
elongation, and reduction or area are most important factors obtainable from tensile stress-
strain curve. Most material have a good correlation between the reduction of area (in tensile
test specimen) and the “formability” of material in metal forming processes. 8

The effects of material properties on metal forming processes starting from solid state can be demonstrated
clearly in mass-conserving processes, mass-reducing processes and/or joining processes.
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The primary basic processes in mass reducing processes are either mechanical, fracture (ductile or brittle
type); or chemical, dissolution and combustion; or thermal, melting.

Most industrial mass reducing processes based on mechanical fracture are metal cutting processes. The
suitability of a material for machining processes called ‘Machinability’, which is variable for different
materials. The parameters covers the Machinability are tool wear, surface finish, cutting forces and/or chip
formation.
Machinability is a function of mechanical properties, chemical composition, and heat treatment of processed
material.
For example, a material has a good Machinability, when it has low ductility, low strain hardening and low
hardness (mechanical properties). Furthermore, adding small amount of lead, manganese, sulfur, selenium
or tellurium to machined material will increase Machinability without changing the mechanical properties 9
(changing chemical composition).

The effects of material properties on metal forming processes starting from solid state can be demonstrated
clearly in mass-conserving processes, mass-reducing processes and/or joining processes.
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Joining process (metal forming):

Joining processes are based either on thermal or thermal and mechanical or just mechanical
basic processes. Fusion welding is based on thermal (melting) and mechanical (flow) basic
processes. While, thermal (heating) and mechanical (plastic deformation) are basic processes
for resistance welding, e.g. spot welding process. Adhesive bonding has mechanical (flow)
basic process
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Forming from Liquid state:
In forming from the liquid state material (mass conserving process), e.g. metal casting process,
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the final properties depends mainly on the composition (including solidification temperature
range), the thermal and mechanical properties of the mold or die material, and solidification
conditions (solidification rate, its direction ...etc).

In forming from solid state by plastic deformation as a basic process (mass conserving process),
the amount of deformation, the temperature, and rate of the deformation primary determine
the final properties. For example, cold work deformation increases the material strength and
decreases ductility. While, hot work deformation gives poor surface finish and reasonable
mechanical properties.
The metal cutting process, primarily influences the surface quality e.g. roughness, hardness,
internal stresses ..etc.
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Different industrial techniques are common to increase the strength of metals. These cover
the following techniques:
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* Phase transformation in solid state; (a) Martensitic (diffusionless) transformations,
and (b) Precipitation (diffusion type).
* Strain hardening, (cold work and cold work see Fig 2.2, and 2.3)
* Dispersion hardening, see section 2.4.3.

,Strength/strain
,σu and σo
,Grain growth
Ductility
,ε b ,Strength/
hardness
,Cold work % ,Temperature
increase
,Fig. 2.2 Variation of yield stress(σo), ,Fig. 2.3 Variation of ductility, 12

ultimate stress(σu) and elongation strength/hardness, and grain growth
percent with temperature increase.
(ε b) with increase of cold work.

In Strain hardening:
In metal forming processes the deformation is

carried out at room temperature or elevated
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temperatures. Cold working process refers to
deformation carried out at temperatures
below the recrystallization temperature, while

in hot working the deformation is carried out
at temperature above recrystallization
temperature (sometime called forging
temperature).
In general, yield stress and ultimate stress

increase with increasing the amount of cold
work, while the percentage elongation
decreases with the increase of the amount of
cold work, see Fig. 2.2. 13
In Strain hardening:
In metal forming processes the deformation is

carried out at room temperature or elevated
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temperatures. Cold working process refers to
deformation carried out at temperatures
below the recrystallization temperature, while

in hot working the deformation is carried out
at temperature above recrystallization
temperature (sometime called forging
temperature).
In general, yield stress and ultimate stress

increase with increasing the amount of cold
work, while the percentage elongation
decreases with the increase of the amount of
cold work, see Fig. 2.2. 14
In Strain hardening ……….. continue:
After deformation the structure grains

becomes elongated in certain direction and
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contracted in another direction, this called
anisotropy.

This means the metal has different properties
in different directions. By heat treatment, it is
possible to release the stresses or the
deformation in the matrix grains and this
procedure called recrystallization, these results
in grain size growth, see Fig. 2.3.
Recrystallization temperature is nearly half the

melting point of metals
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2.5 Classification of materials
Manufacturing materials are divided into three

main groups given as follows:
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•Metallic material group,
•Nonmetallic material group, and
•Composite material group.

e re r 2
H p te
h a
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Chapter - 2 - IE 252

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Chapter 2

Material and Manufacturing Properties

Chapter 2: Material and

Chapter 2: Material and

Material properties covers:

Chapter 2: Material and

Assigning Material For A Product ?

Chapter 2: Material and

Material properties changed using manufacturing processes: (forming from solid

Chapter 2: Material and

Chapter 2: Material and

Melting phase, Shaping phase, Solidification phase:

Chapter 2: Material and

Forming from solid state:

Mass-conserving process (metal forming):

Chapter 2: Material and

Forming from solid state:

Chapter 2: Material and

Forming from solid state:

Chapter 2: Material and

Forming from Liquid state:

Chapter 2: Material and

Chapter 2: Material and

,Fig. 2.2 Variation of yield stress(σo), ,Fig. 2.3 Variation of ductility, 12

(ε b) with increase of cold work.

In metal forming processes the deformation is

Chapter 2: Material and

In general, yield stress and ultimate stress

In metal forming processes the deformation is

Chapter 2: Material and

In general, yield stress and ultimate stress

In Strain hardening ……….. continue:

After deformation the structure grains

Chapter 2: Material and

Recrystallization temperature is nearly half the

Manufacturing materials are divided into three

Chapter 2: Material and

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