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Chapter 2
Twelve
Introducing…
This model is a close relative of the IS-LM model; both stress the
interaction between the goods market and the money market. Price
levels are fixed, and both show short-run fluctuations in aggregate
income. The
Mundell-Fleming Model assumes an open economy in which trade and
finance are added; the IS-LM e assumes a closed economy.
LM*
Equilibrium
IS*
exchange rate
Income, output, Y
Equilibrium income
Chapter 3
Twelve
This model, often described as “the dominant policy paradigm for
studying open-economy monetary and fiscal policy,” makes one
important and extreme assumption: the economy being studied is a
small open economy and there is perfect capital mobility, meaning
that it can borrow or lend as much as it wants in world financial
markets, and therefore, the economy’s interest rate is controlled by
the world interest rate, mathematically denoted as r = r*.
One key lesson about this model is that the behavior of an economy
depends on the exchange rate regime it adopts—floating or fixed.
This model will help answer the question of which exchange rate
regime should a nation adopt?
Chapter 4
Twelve
Under a system of floating exchange rates, the exchange rate is set
by market forces and is allowed to fluctuate in response to changing
economic conditions.
Chapter 5
Twelve
The Small Open Economy Under Floating Exchange Rates
Let’s start with two equations (notice the asterisk next to IS and LM to
remind us that the equations hold the interest rate constant):
IS*: Y = C(Y-T) + I(r*) + G + NX(e) LM*: M/P = L (r*,Y)
Assumption 1:
The domestic interest rate is equal to the world interest rate (r = r*).
Assumption 2:
The price level is exogenously fixed since the model is used to analyze
the short run (P). This implies that the nominal exchange rate is
proportional to the real exchange rate.
Assumption 3:
The money supply is also set exogenously by the central bank (M).
Assumption 4:
Our LM* curve will be vertical because the exchange rate does not enter
Chapter 6
into our
TwelveLM* equation.
The IS* curve slopes downward because a higher exchange rate
reduces net exports (since a currency appreciation makes domestic
goods more expensive to foreigners), which in turn, lowers
aggregate income.
Exchange rate, e
IS*
Chapter Income, output, Y 7
Twelve
An increase in the exchange (b)
Expenditure, E
rate, lowers net exports, Y=E
which shifts planned Planned expenditure,
expenditure downward and E = C + I + G + NX
lowers income. The IS*
curve summarizes these
changes in the goods market
equilibrium. Income, output, Y
(a) (c)
Exchange rate, e,
Exchange rate, e
NX(e) IS*
Chapter 8
Twelve Net exports, NX Income, output, Y
Interest rate, r
LM
r = r*
The LM curve and
the world interest
rate together determine
Income, output, Y
the level of income.
The LM* curve is
LM*
Exchange rate, e
vertical because the
exchange rate does
not enter into the LM*
equation.
Recall the LM* equation is:
M/P = L (r*,Y)
Chapter 9
Twelve Income, output, Y
e LM* LM*'
e LM*
+G, or –T + M
+e, no Y -e, +Y
IS*' IS*
IS*
Income, output, Y Income, output, Y
When income rises in a small open economy, due to When the increase in the money supply puts downward
the fiscal expansion, the interest rate tries to rise but pressure on the domestic interest rate, capital flows out
capital inflows from abroad put downward pressure as investors seek a higher return elsewhere. The capital
on the interest rate. This inflow causes an increase in outflow prevents the interest rate from falling. The
the demand for the currency pushing up its value outflow also causes the exchange rate to depreciate,
and thus making domestic goods more expensive making domestic goods less expensive relative to
Chapter (causing a –NX). The –NX offsets
to foreigners foreign goods, and stimulates NX. Hence, monetary
10
the expansionary
Twelve fiscal policy and the effect on Y. policy influences the e rather than r.
Fixed Exchange Rates
Under a fixed exchange rate, the central bank announces a value
for the exchange rate and stands ready to buy and sell the domestic
currency at a predetermined price to keep the exchange
rate at its announced level. Fixed exchange rates require a commitment
of a central bank to allow the money supply to adjust to whatever level
will ensure that the equilibrium exchange rate in the market for foreign-
currency exchange equals the announced exchange rate.
Most recently, China fixed the value of its currency against the U.S.
dollar, which has resulted in a lot of tension between the two nations.
IS*' IS*
IS*
Income, output, Y Income, output, Y
A fiscal expansion shifts IS* to the right. To maintain If the Fed tried to increase the money supply by
the fixed exchange rate, the Fed must increase the buying bonds from the public, that would put down-
money supply, thus increasing LM* to the right. ward pressure on the interest rate. Arbitragers respond
Unlike the case with flexible exchange rates, there is no by selling the domestic currency to the central bank,
crowding out effect on NX due to a higher exchange causing the money supply and the LM curve
Chapter rate. to contract to their initial positions. 12
Twelve
Fixed vs.
Exchange Rate Conclusions
Fixed Exchange Rates Floating Exchange Rates
• Fiscal Policy is Powerful. • Fiscal Policy is Powerless.
• Monetary Policy is Powerless. • Monetary Policy is Powerful.
Hint: (“Fixed” and “Fiscal” sound alike). Hint: (Think of “floating” money.)
The Mundell-Fleming model shows that fiscal policy does not influence
aggregate income under floating exchange rates. A fiscal expansion
causes the currency to appreciate, reducing net exports and offsetting
the usual expansionary impact on aggregate demand.
Chapter 14
Twelve
A country with fixed exchange rates can, however, conduct
a type of monetary policy by deciding to change the level at
which the exchange rate is fixed.
Chapter 15
Twelve
What if the domestic
interest rate were above
the world interest rate?
The higher return will attract funds from the rest of the world,
driving the domestic interest rate back down. And, if the
domestic interest rate were below the world interest rate, r*,
domestic residents would lend abroad to earn a higher return,
driving the domestic interest rate back up. In the end, the
domestic interest rate would equal the world interest rate.
Chapter 16
Twelve
Why doesn’t this logic always apply? There are two reasons why interest
rates differ across countries:
Chapter 18
Twelve
Now suppose that political turmoil causes the country’s risk premium
to rise. The most direct effect is that the domestic interest rate r rises.
The higher interest rate has two effects:
1) IS* curve shifts to the left, because the higher interest rate reduces
investment.
2) LM* shifts to the right, because the higher interest rate reduces the
demand for money, and this allows a higher level of income for any
given money supply.
These two shifts cause income to rise and thus push down the equilibrium
exchange rate on world markets.
The important implication: expectations of the exchange rate are partially
self-fulfilling. For example, suppose that people come to believe that the
French franc will not be valuable in the future. Investors will place a
larger risk premium on French assets: will rise in France. This
expectation will drive up French interest rates and will drive down the
value of the French franc. Thus, the expectation that a currency will lose
value in the future causes it to lose value today. The next slide will
Chapter 19
demonstrate
Twelve the mechanics.
An Increase in the Risk Premium
Is this really is where
e LM* LM*'
the economy ends
up? In the next slide,
we’ll see that
increases in country
risk are undesirable.
IS*
IS*'
Income, output, Y
Chapter 21
Twelve
1) Exchange-rate volatility
creates uncertainty and
1) Allows monetary policy to be used
makes trade more difficult.
for other purposes such as stabilizing
2) Tempers overuse of
employment or prices.
monetary authority.
Chapter 23
Twelve
It is impossible for a nation to have free capital flows, a fixed
exchange rate, and independent monetary policy.
Free capital flows
Option 1: Option 2:
United States Hong Kong
Independent Fixed
Monetary Exchange
Policy Option 3: Rates
Chapter
China 24
Twelve
China’s Currency Situation
By January 2009, the exchange rate had moved to 6.84 yuan
per dollar– a 21% appreciation of the yuan. Despite this large
change in the exchange rate, China’s critics continued to complain
about that nation’s intervention in foreign-exchange markets. In
January 2009, the new Treasury Secretary Timothy Geithner said,
“President Obama– backed by the conclusions of a broad range of
economists—believes that China is manipulating its currency. So,
President Obama had pledged to use aggressively all diplomatic
avenues open to him to seek change in China’s currency practices.
Currently, China no longer uses a completely fixed exchange rate.
Chapter 25
Twelve
Recall the two equations of the Mundell-Fleming model:
IS*: Y=C(Y-T) + I(r*) + G + NX(e) e LM* LM*'
LM*: M/P=L (r*,Y)
Chapter 28
Twelve