Statistics &

Evidence-Based Practice
THE PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF NURSING
NURSING 200W
Objectives

 Identify the purposes of statistical analyses.

 Describe the process of data analysis.
 Describe probability theory and decision theory that guide
statistical data analysis.
 Describe the process of inferring from a sample to a
population.
 Discuss the distribution of the normal curve.
Objectives

 Identify descriptive analyses.

 Describe the results obtained from inferential statistical analyses.
 Describe the five types of results obtained from quasi-experimental
and experimental study designs.
 Compare and contrast statistical significance and clinical importance
of results.
 Critically
appraise statistical results, findings, limitations,
conclusions, and generalization of findings.
A Statistical Primer
Statistics in Nursing Practice

 Reading or critiquing published research

 Examining outcomes of nursing practice by analyzing data
collected in a clinical site
 Developing administrative reports with support data
 Analyzing research done by nursing staff and other health
professionals at a clinical site
 Demonstrating a problem or need and conducting a study
Critically Appraising Statistics

 Identify statistical procedures used

 Determine whether statistics used were appropriate or not

 Evaluate researchers interpretation of statistics

Stages in Data Analysis

1. Prepare data for analysis.

2. Describe the sample.
3. Test reliability of measurement methods.
4. Conduct exploratory analysis.
5. Conduct confirmatory analysis guided by hypotheses,
questions, or objectives.
6. Conduct posthoc analyses.
Major Statistics in Nursing Studies

Descriptive Inferential
Descriptive Statistics

 Describe and summarize the sample and variables

 Also referred to as summary statistics
Inferential Statistics

 Infer or address the objectives, questions, and hypotheses

Descriptive Statistics

 Ifa research study collects numerical data, data analysis

begins with descriptive statistics
 Not limited to quantitative research!
 May be the only statistical analysis conducted in a descriptive
study
Types of Descriptive Statistics

 Frequency distributions

 Measures of central tendency

 Measures of dispersion
Two-Tailedness
Ungrouped Frequency Distribution

 Data in raw form:

 1: ☺
 2: ☺☺☺☺☺☺☺
 3: ☺☺
 4: ☺☺☺☺
 5: ☺
Grouped Frequency Distribution

 Data are grouped into categories:

 Ages 15 to 20: 12
 Ages 20 to 25: 14
 Ages 25 to 30: 19….
Example of a Percentage Distribution

 Housing: 41.7%
 Textbooks: 8.3%
 Clothing: 16.7%
 Food: 8.3%
 Additional Supplies: 25%
How Frequency Distributions are Presented in
Research Articles
Measures of Central Tendency

Mean

Median

Mode
Normal Curve
Normal Curve

 A theoretical frequency distribution of all possible values

in a population

 Levels of significance and probability are based on the

logic of the normal curve
Mean

 Isthe sum of values divided by the number of values

being summed
Median

 Isthe value in exact center of ungrouped frequency

distribution
 Is obtained by rank ordering the values
Mode

 Is the numerical value or score that occurs with greatest

frequency
 Is expressed graphically
Bimodal Distribution
Measures of Dispersion

Range

Variance

Standard deviation

Standardized scores

Scatterplots
Range

 Is obtained by subtracting lowest score from highest score

Difference Scores

 Are obtained by subtracting the mean from each score

 Sometimes referred to as a deviation score because it

indicates the extent to which a score deviates from the
mean
Standard Deviation

 Is the square root of the variance

 Justas the mean is the “average” value, the standard
deviation is the “average” difference score
Standardized Scores

 Raw scores that cannot be compared and are transformed

into standardized scores

 Common standardized score is a Z-score

 Provides a way to compare scores in a similar process

Scatterplots
Probability Theory
Probability Theory

 Used to explain:
 Extent of a relationship
 Probability of an event occurring
 Probability that an event can be accurately predicted
Probability

 If probability is 0.23, then p = 0.23

 There is a 23% probability that a particular event will

occur
Inferences

 A conclusion or judgment based on evidence

 Judgments are made based on statistical results
Decision Theory
Decision Theory

 Assumes that all the groups in a study used to test a

hypothesis are components of the same population
relative to the variables under study
 Itis up to the researcher to provide evidence that there
really is a difference
 To test the assumption of no difference, a cutoff point is
selected before analysis
 JUDGING THE
Statistics APPROPRIATENESS OF THE
STATISTICAL TESTS USED
Critical Appraisal

 Factors that must be considered include:

 Study purpose
 Hypotheses, questions, or objectives
 Design

 Level of measurement
Critical Appraisal

 Youmust judge whether the procedure was performed

appropriately and the results were interpreted correctly.
Information Needed

1. Decide whether the research question focuses on

differences or associations/relationships.
Information Needed

1. Decide whether the research question focuses on

differences or associations/relationships.
2. Determine level of measurement.
Data Types

 Nominal
 Ordinal
 Interval/Ratio
Information Needed

1. Decide whether the research question focuses on

differences or associations/relationships.
2. Determine level of measurement.
3. Select the study design that most closely fits the one you
are looking at.
Information Needed

1. Decide whether the research question focuses on

differences or associations/relationships.
2. Determine level of measurement.
3. Select the study design that most closely fits the one you
are looking at.
4. Determine whether the study samples are independent,
dependent, or mixed.
 SOME COMMON STATISTICAL
Statistical Tests TESTS IN RESEARCH
Chi-Square

 Nominal or ordinal data

 Testsfor differences between expected frequencies if

groups are alike and frequencies actually observed in the
data
Chi-Square

Regular No Regular
Exercise Exercise Total
Male 35 15 50
Female 10 40 50
Total 45 55 100
Chi-Square

 Indicatethat there is a significant difference between

some of the cells in the table
 The difference may be between only two of the cells, or
there may be differences among all of the cells.
 Chi-square results will not tell you which cells are
different.
Example
Pearson Product-Moment Correlation

 Tests for the presence of a relationship between two

variables

 Works with all types of data

Correlation

 Performed on data collected from a single sample

 Measures of the two variables to be examined must be

available for each subject in the data set.
Correlation

 Results
 Nature of the relationship (positive or negative)
 Magnitude of the relationship (–1 to +1)
 Testing the significance of a correlation coefficient
Response Question

 Which are the following are significant?

 A. r = 0.56 (p = 0.03)
 B. r = –0.13 (p = 0.2)
 C. r = 0.65 (p < 0.002)
Example
Factor Analysis

 Examines relationships among large numbers of variables

 Disentangles those relationships to identify clusters of
variables most closely linked
 Sorts variables according to how closely related they are
to the other variables
 Closely related variables grouped into a factor
Factor Analysis

 Several factors may be identified within a data set

 The researcher must explain why the analysis grouped the
variables in a specific way
 Statisticalresults indicate the amount of variance in the
data set that can be explained by each factor and the
amount of variance in each factor that can be explained
by a particular variable
Regression Analysis

 Usedwhen one wishes to predict the value of one variable

based on the value of one or more other variables
Regression Analysis

 The outcome of analysis is the regression coefficient R

 When R is squared, it indicates the amount of variance in

the data that is explained by the equation
 R2 = 0.63
Example
T-test

 Requires interval level measures

 Tests for significant differences between two samples

 Most commonly used test of differences

Example
Analysis of Variance

 ANOVA

 Tests for differences between means

 Allows for comparison of groups

Example
 A SUMMARY OF THE TYPES
OF RESULTS YOU WILL FIND
Results IN EXPERIMENTAL AND
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH STUDIES
Types of Results

Significant and predicted

Nonsignificant

Significant and not predicted

Mixed

Unexpected
Significant and Predicted

 Support logical associations between variables

 As expected by the researcher

Nonsignificant

 Negative or inconclusive results

 No significant differences or relationships

Significant and Unpredicted

 Opposite of what was expected

 Indicate potential flawed logic of researcher

Mixed

 Most common outcome of studies

 Onevariable may uphold predicted characteristics, whereas

another does not

 Ortwo dependent measures of the same variable may show

opposite results.
Unexpected

 Relationshipsbetween variables that were not

hypothesized and not predicted from the framework being
used
Findings,
Conclusions, &
Implications
Findings

 Results of a research study that have been translated and

interpreted
Statistically Significant Findings

 Significant p-values
Clinically Significant Findings

 Practical application of findings

 Somewhat based on opinion

Conclusions

 A synthesis of findings

 Researchers should not go beyond what the findings state

or interpret too much!
Implications

 The meaning for nursing practice, research, and/or

education

 Specific suggestions for implementing the findings

Critical Appraisal QUESTIONS TO ASK
Critical Appraisal

1. What statistics were used to described the characteristics of the

sample?
2. Are the data analysis procedures clearly described?
3. Did statistics address the purpose of the study?
4. Did the statistics address the objectives, questions or hypotheses
of the study?
5. Were the statistics appropriate for the level of measurement of
each variable?
Critical Appraisal

1. What statistics were used to described the characteristics of the

sample?
2. Are the data analysis procedures clearly described?
3. Did statistics address the purpose of the study?
4. Did the statistics address the objectives, questions or hypotheses
of the study?
5. Were the statistics appropriate for the level of measurement of
each variable?
Critical Appraisal

1. What statistics were used to described the characteristics of the

sample?
2. Are the data analysis procedures clearly described?
3. Did statistics address the purpose of the study?
4. Did the statistics address the objectives, questions or hypotheses
of the study?
5. Were the statistics appropriate for the level of measurement of
each variable?
Critical Appraisal

1. What statistics were used to described the characteristics of the

sample?
2. Are the data analysis procedures clearly described?
3. Did statistics address the purpose of the study?
4. Did the statistics address the objectives, questions or hypotheses
of the study?
5. Were the statistics appropriate for the level of measurement of
each variable?
Critical Appraisal

1. What statistics were used to described the characteristics of the

sample?
2. Are the data analysis procedures clearly described?
3. Did statistics address the purpose of the study?
4. Did the statistics address the objectives, questions or hypotheses
of the study?
5. Were the statistics appropriate for the level of measurement of
each variable?
Critical Appraisal

1. What statistics were used to described the characteristics of the

sample?
2. Are the data analysis procedures clearly described?
3. Did statistics address the purpose of the study?
4. Did the statistics address the objectives, questions or hypotheses
of the study?
5. Were the statistics appropriate for the level of measurement of
each variable?
 QUESTION?
The End! COMMENTS?