HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (CEN3206)

Chapter 1:Highway System

Highway Alignment & Route Survey
Functional Classification of Highway System
Highway Design Control & Criteria
Cross Section Elements

Instructors: Abdi M., Gemechu Y. & Dagim L.

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Highway Alignment & Route Surveys

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 Highway Alignment
• Definition: The position or the layout of the centre line of
the highway on the ground is called the alignment.
– Horizontal alignment consists of straight paths and curves
– Vertical alignment consists of grades and curves
• Improper alignment of a road facility implies capital loss
initially in construction as well as loss in costs of maintenance
and vehicle operation
• Once the road is aligned and constructed, it is not easy to
change the alignment due to increase in cost of adjoining land
and construction of costly structiures by the road side.
• Hence careful considerations while finalising the alignment of
a new road need not be over-emphasised.

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Requirements of an ideal alignment

• Requirements of an ideal alignment between two

terminals include:

– Short
• A straight alignment would be the shortest, though there may be
several practical considerations which would cause a devation
from the shortest path

– Easy
• Easy to construction
• Easy to maintain
• Easy for operation with easy grades and curves

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 Requirements of an ideal alignment
– Economical
• Design should consider initial capital cost, maintenance cost, and
operation cost

– Safe
• Safe enough for construction and maintenance from the view
point of stability of natural slopes, embankments, cut slopes, and
foundations
• Safe for traffic operations with eas geometric features such as
sharpness of curves, grades,sideslopes and etc.

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Factors Controlling Highway Alignment

• Obligatory Points
– Points through which the alignment is to pass
– Chosen Bridge Site, Intermediate town to be accessed
between the termini, a mountain pass, etc.
– Points which should be avoided
– Areas requiring costly structures, highly developed
expensive areas, marshes and low lying lands subject to
flooding, hilly terrain where there is a possibility of land
slides, etc.

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 Factors Controlling Highway Alignment (cont.)

• Traffic
– The alignment should suit the traffic reqirements
– Present and future travel patterns should be observed &
forecasted
– Traffic “Desire line” should be drawn showing path of
traffic flow
• Geometric Constraints
– Design factors such as max. gradient, minimum radius of
curve, minimum available sight distance, maximum
allowable super-elevation, etc. should be within the limits
of allowable design values which are governed by the
expected traffic speed
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 Factors Controlling Highway Alignment (cont.)

• Economy
– Total transportation cost including initial construction cost,
maintenance cost, and operation cost
• Example :
– Deep cuttings, high embankments, no of bridges that need to be
constructed, etc. increases the initial cost of construction.
• Other considerations
– Drainage considerations
– Hydrological factors
– Political considerations
– Monotony
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 Special considerations on Hilly Roads

• Slope Stability
– a common problem in hill roads is land slide. Special care should be
taken to choose the side that is more stable
• Drainage
– Numerous hill-side drains to adequately drain the water across the
road should be provided
– But, attempts should be made to align the road where the number of
cross-drainage structures are minimized
• Geometry
– Different standards of grades, curves, sight distances, speeds and
other related features are followed in hill roads
• Resisting Length
– The resisting length should be kept as low as possible. Thus, the
ineffective rise and excessive fall should be kept minimum

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 Route Surveys (Location)

• In order to select the best road corridor, the

following engineering surveys are usually
carried out:

• Desk Study & Reconnaissance Surveys

• Preliminary Surveys & Detailed (Location)
Surveys

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 1. Desk Study
• Desk Study
– Involves an examination of a relatively large area between terminal
points for the purpose of determining a broad corridors through
which a road alignment may pass
– Usually such survey is made by the use of available maps and Aerial
Photographs (stereoscopy)
• Probable Alignment is identified on the map by:
– Avoiding valleys, ponds, etc.;
– Avoiding river bends where bridges should not be
located;
– Keeping in view of geometric standards (e.g. avoiding
steep topographies, etc)

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 2. Reconnaissance Surveys
• Reconnaissance: Field Study
– Involves inspection of each band (identified during the desk study) to
determine the most feasible route based on some basic criteria
– A survey party inspects a fairly broad stretch of land along the proposed
routes identified on the map during the 1st phase and collects all relevant
details not available on the map
– Some of the details include:
• valley, ponds, lakes, marshy land, ridge, hills, permanent structures, & other
obstructions;
• gradient, length of gradient, and radius of curves;
• number & types of cross-drainage structures, and maximum flood level;
• soil types from field identification;
• sources of construction materials, water and location stone quarries;
• geological formation, type of rock, depth of strata, seepage flow, etc to identify
stable sides of a hill
– A rapid field study of the area, especially, when it is vast and the terrain is
difficult may be done by aerial survey

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 Criteria to evaluate the most feasible routes

• Design standards
– Minimum design standards (max permissible gradient, etc ) are normally fixed prior to
the survey and any one of the feasible routes that economically fits in these standards
would be feasible
• Grading and Earthwork
– Grading is a function if ruggedness of terrian and routes following contour is cheaper
– The type of material encountered is another factor in the cost of earthwork. Excavation
of Hard Rock might need blasting and thus expensive!!
• Foundation Conditions
– Complete foundation study is not done during Reconnaissance, but the presence of
Marshy and bogy areas are unsuitable
• Geological Conditions
– Related to stability of side slopes, good quality and quantity of construction materials
near site
• Drainage
– Likely surface & sub-surface drainage problems, type and number of drainage structures

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 Criteria to evaluate the most feasible routes

• Right of Way
– Acquisition of land for the location of a transportation system may cost much;
shifting the alignment a little may reduce the cost considerably
• Effect on Population
– Services offering the nearby population, its effect on the development of the
community – schools, churches, public buildings, etc, undesirable effects such
as pollution, etc
• Traffic Characteristics
– how best will a route fit with traffic requirements of the area
• Maintenance Costs
– An extraordinary maintenance cost (landslide,etc), and user costs from
inconveniency due to closure of the facility due to maintenance problems
After evaluating the alternative routes proposed, one or more routes
will be recommended. If more than one routes passed the
reconnaissance survey detail study is made to choose one best route in
the preliminary survey.

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 3. Preliminary Surveys
• Consists of running an accurate traverse line along
the routes already recommended as a result of
reconnaissance survey in order to obtain sufficient
data for final location
• Objectives
– Survey and collect necessary data (topography, drainage,
soil, etc.) on alternate alignments
– To estimate quantity of earthwork, material, … of different
alternatives
– Compare alternate alignments
– Finalize the best alignment from all considerations

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PRELIMINARY ALIGNMENT

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 Preliminary Survey
• The preliminary survey may be carried out by one
of the following two methods:
– Modern: Aerial Survey – using photo interpretation
techniques, information on topography, soil, geology,
etc. can be obtained
– Conventional: a survey part carries out surveys using the
require field equipment taking measurements, collecting
topographical and other data and carrying out soil
survey

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 Conventional Method
• Establishing primary Traverse following the line recommended in
the reconnaissance survey
• Record all topographical features
• Levelling work: to determine the Centre Line, Profile & Typical
Cross-sections (just sufficient to approximate earthwork)
• Hydrological Data: to estimate type, number, & size of cross-
drainage structures, and the grade line is decided based on the
hydrological and drainage data
• Soil Survey: the suitability of proposed alignment is to be finally
decided based on the soil survey data. The soil survey at this stage
helps to workout details of earthwork, slopes, suitability of
materials, sub-soil and surface drainage requirements, pavement
type and approximate thickness requirements

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… after finishing the preliminary survey

Select the most suitable alignment by

conducting a comparative study considering
economy, geometry, etc.

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 4. Final Location Survey
Purpose
to fix the centre line of the selected alignment
and collect additional data for the design and
preparation of working drawings. If extensive
data is collected earlier the survey work here
might be limited.

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 Tasks during Final Location Survey

1. Pegging the centre line: usually done at stations

established at 30m intervals with reference to
preliminary traverse/ base line (if used earlier) or a
control survey (if aerial survey was used).
2. Centre-line Levelling: at the stations and at
intermediate points between stations where there is
a significant change in the slope to obtain the
representative profile of the ground

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 Tasks (cont.)
3. Cross-section Levelling: at each station (!) and at
points with significant change in ground slope
4. Intersecting Roads: the directions of the centre
line of all intersecting roads, profiles, and cross-
sections for some distance on both sides
5. Ditches and Streams: horizontal alignment,
profile, and cross section levelling of the banks of
the stream/river

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4. SELECTION OF THE FINAL ALIGNMENT

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4. SELECTION OF THE FINAL ALIGNMENT

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4. SELECTION OF THE FINAL ALIGNMENT

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4. SELECTION OF THE FINAL ALIGNMENT

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4. SELECTION OF THE FINAL ALIGNMENT

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 Drawings & Reports
• The data, after the necessary investigation and final location
survey, is sent to the design office to be used for
– geometric design, pavement design, and design of drainage and other
structures, preparation of drawings, reports, and specifications
• A complete sets of drawings for a road design includs:
– Site plan of proposed alignment
– Detailed Plan & Profile
– Cross-sections for Earth work
– Typical Roadway sections at selected locations (e.g. junctions)
– A mass-haul diagram
– Construction details of structures like bridges, culverts, ….

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 Generally

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 Example 1

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2012 E.C
 Example 2
Select best Alternative route, justify?
Alternative # 1

Determining route alternatives

Preliminary alignment profiles

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 Route Selection (cont’d)

Alternative #2

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 Route Selection (cont’d)

Alternative #3

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Route Selection (cont’d)

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Functional Classification of Highway
System
I. Introduction
II. The Concept of Functional Classification
III. Road class as per ERA Geometric Design Manual

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 I. Introduction
 What is • To classify highways into different
functional operational systems, classes or
classification? geometric types

• For communication among engineers, administrators

& the general public
• Most helpful for location & design
 Why
procedures
functional
classification? • Most helpful for traffic operations
• Safety and mobility
• Important tool for:
• Responsibility & method of financing
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• Transportation
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 Functional classification is the process by which streets and
highways are grouped into classes, or systems, according to the
character of service they are intended to provide.
 Basic to this process is the recognition that individual roads and
streets do not serve travel independently in any major way.
 Rather, most travel involves movement through a network of roads.
It becomes necessary then to determine how this travel can be
channelized within the network in a logical and efficient manner.
 Functional classification defines the nature of this channelization
process by defining the part that any particular road or street should
play in serving the flow of trips through a highway network.
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II. The Concept of Functional Classification
A complete functional design system provides a series of
distinct travel movements
The six stages in most trips include:
 main movement →freeway uninterrupted, high-speed flow
 transition → freeway ramps
 distribution → arterials
 collection → slower speed
 access → direct approach
 termination → parking

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 Functional classification groups streets and
highways according to the character of service
they are intended to provide.
 This recognizes individual roads and streets do
not serve travel independently, rather involves
movement through network of roads.
 Thus, functional classification of roads and
streets is also consistent with categorization of
travel.

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 lines of travel desire are shown as
straight lines connecting trip origins
and destinations. Relative widths of
lines indicate relative amounts of travel
desire. Relative sizes of circles indicate
relative trip generating or attracting
power.
 Note that the heavy travel movements
are directly served or nearly so; and
that the lesser ones are channeled into
somewhat indirect paths.
 The facilities shown in the diagram
have been labeled local, collector and
arterial; terms which are descriptive of
their functional relationships. Note
particularly that this hierarchy of
functional types relates directly to the
hierarchy of travel distances which
they serve.

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In roadway design there are three possible types of
traffic functions to perform:
› Enhancement of through traffic mobility i.e.
facilitation of fast, safe and uninterrupted movement of
traffic through a route;
› Enhancement of local traffic mobility i.e. facilitation
of fast and safe of traffic to/from locations along route;
› Enhancement of local traffic accessibility i.e.
facilitation of easy access of local of traffic to/from
property abutting a route;
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The two major considerations in
classifying highway & street
networks functionally are:
› Access
› Mobility
 Access is a fixed requirement,
necessary at both ends of any trip.
 Mobility, along the path of such
trips, can be provided at varying
levels, usually referred to as
"level of service." It can
incorporate a wide range of
elements (e.g., riding comfort and
freedom from speed changes) but
the most basic is operating speed
or trip travel time.
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III. Road class as per ERA Geometric Design Manual (2002)
The functional classification in Ethiopia includes five functional classes
› Trunk Roads (Class I): Centers of international importance and roads
terminating at international boundaries are linked with Addis Ababa by trunk
roads. Trunk roads have a present AADT >=1000, although they can have
volumes as low as 100 AADT
› Link Roads (Class II):Centers of national or international importance, such as
principal towns and urban centers, must be linked between each other by link
roads. A typical link road has over 400 - 1000 first year AADT, although
values can range between 50-10,000 AADT.
› Main Access Roads (Class III):Centers of provincial importance must be
linked between each other by main access roads. First year AADTs are
between 30-1,000.
› Collector Roads (Class IV):Roads linking locally important centers to each
other, to a more important center, or to higher class roads must be linked by a
collector road. First year AADTs are between 25-400.
› Feeder Roads (Class V):Any road link to a minor center such as market &
local locations is served by a feeder road. First year AADTs are b/n 0-100.

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Functional Classification of Roads..
(cond..)

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 Highway Design Control & Criteria
I. The nature of the terrain
II. The design vehicle
III. The Driver Characteristics
IV. The traffic volumes expected on the road;
V. The design speed
VI. The economic and environmental considerations, etc.

One of the most important design controls, highway

functional classification, was discussed earlier. Other
important design controls are included in the following
discussions:

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 I. Topography and Land Use
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 Topography, physical features and land use have a great

effect on road locations and geometrics.
 Design elements affected are:
 Grades affected by hills,
 Sight distance valleys, rivers
 Cross-sections steep slopes
 Speeds etc.
 Ethiopian Road Authority classifies terrain as:
 flat,
 rolling,
 mountainous and
 escarpment.
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 I. Topography and Land Use…(cont.)
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 1. Flat terrain:
 Flat or gently rolling country, which offers few obstacles to the construction of a
road, having continuously unrestricted horizontal and vertical alignment
(transverse terrain slope up to 5 percent).

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 I. Topography and Land Use…(cont.)
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 2. Rolling terrain:
 Rolling, hilly or foothill country where the slopes generally rise and fall
moderately and where occasional steep slopes are encountered, resulting in
some restrictions in alignment
 transverse terrain slope from 5 percent to 25 percent

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 I. Topography and Land Use…(cont.)
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 3. Mountainous terrain:
 Rugged, hilly and mountainous country and river gorges. This class of
terrain imposes definite restrictions on the standard of alignment
obtainable and often involves long steep grades and limited sight
distance.(transverse terrain slope from 25 to 50 %

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 I. Topography and Land Use…(cont.)
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 4. Escarpment terrain:
 Other terrains not classified under the above terrain types.
 Transversal slope above 50%

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 II. Design Vehicle
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 Key controls in geometric highway design are the

physical characteristics and the proportions of
vehicles of various sizes using the highway and
turning capabilities of vehicles.
 Controls in geometric design:
 Max. gradient
 Lane width
 Horizontal curve Radius
 Horizontal curve widening
 Junction design
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 II. Design Vehicle ….(cont.)
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 According to AASHTO there are 4 classes

 Passenger cars
 Buses
 Trucks
 Recreational vehicles
 ERA’s four design vehicles:
 Utility vehicle DV1
 Single unit truck DV2
 Single unit bus DV3
 Semi-trailer combination DV4
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 Table of Design Vehicle Dimensions and
Characteristics
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Design Vehicle Design Vehicle Overall (m) Overhang (m) Wheelbase Min. Design
Designation (m) Turning Radius
(m)

Height Width Length Front Rear

4x4 Utility Vehicle DV1 1.3 2.1 5.8 0.9 1.5 3.4 7.3

Single Unit Truck DV2 4.1 2.6 11.0 1.5 3.0 6.5 12.8

Single Unit Bus DV3 4.1 2.6 12.1 2.1 2.4 7.6 12.8

Semi-Trailer Combination DV4 4.1 2.6 15.2 1.2 1.8 4.8+8.4= 13.7
13.2

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 II. Design Vehicle ….(cont.)
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 III. Driver Characteristics
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 Geometric design of a highway should consider

users, especially drivers’ performance limits. There
are limits to a driver’s vision, perception, reaction,
concentration, comfort that could impact the
highway safety and operating efficiency.
 Example:
 the average brake-reaction time of a driver (including
decision time), is 2.5 sec which important in
determining sight distance in highway geometric
design
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 IV. Design Volume
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 Traffic volume is number of vehicles that pass a point

along a roadway during a specified time period.
 directly affects features of design such as:
 number of lanes, widths, alignments, and gradients.
 Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT): during a period of
24 consecutive hours averaged over a period of 365 days.
 Average Daily Traffic (ADT): is the average of 24-hr
counts collected over a number of days greater than one
but less than a year.
 one truck is often equivalent to several passenger cars.
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 V. Design Speed
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 determine the various geometric design features of the

roadway.
 Depends on:
 Functional classification
 Land use of adjacent area
 Topography
 Expected operating speed
 Select as high a design speed as practical
 directly related:
 Curvature(radius), super elevation, and sight distance
 Indirectly related:
 widths
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ofDepartment
lanes and shoulders and clearances
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to walls and rails.
HIGHWAY CROSS-SECTION ELEMENTS

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 HIGHWAY CROSS-SECTION ELEMENTS
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 A cross-section will normally consist of the

carriageway, shoulders or curbs, drainage features,
and earthwork profiles
 Carriageway- use by moving traffic: traffic lanes,
auxiliary lanes, climbing lanes, and passing lanes, and
bus bays and lay-byes.
 Roadway- consists of the carriageway and the shoulders,
parking lanes and viewing areas
 Earthwork profiles- includes side slopes and back slopes
 For urban cross-sections: facilities for pedestrians,
cyclists, or other specialist user groups
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 HIGHWAY CROSS-SECTION ELEMENTS…
(cont.)
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 Highways are categorized into

 Divided highways
 Undivided highways
 The distinction is based on the presence of median
 The components of divided highways within the right of way are
 Highway Travel Lanes
 Shoulders
 Medians
 Pavement Crowns
 Curbs
 Drainage Ditches
 Side slopes
 Guardrails
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 I. Highway Travel Lanes
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 the portion of roadway provided for movement of vehicles

 vary according to functional class of highway, design
speed, traffic volume and level of development of the area.
 Should accommodate the type & volume of traffic, assumed
design speed
 unequal-width lanes are used, locating the wider lane on
the outside (right) provides more space for large vehicles
that usually occupy that lane.
 Example: Two-lane HW: 7.2m lane width
 Table 2.1 of ERA manuals for all DS

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 II. Shoulders
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 Shoulders: attached with the travelled way for:

 accommodation of stopped vehicles for emergency use
 lateral support for the pavement structure.
 recovery of errant vehicles
 to increase sight distance on horizontal curves
 to provide clearance for placement of road signs
 provides additional space for bicycle use
 They vary from no shoulder on minor rural roads where
there is no surfacing, to a 1.5-3.0m or even greater sealed
shoulder on major roads depending on the terrain and
design classification.
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 II. Shoulders…(cont.)
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 Materials used to surface shoulders include:

 gravel, shell, crushed rock, mineral or chemical additives, bituminous
surface treatments
 All shoulders should be sloped sufficiently to rapidly drain surface
water
 The slope of the shoulder should be greater than that of the pavement.
 high type surfacing: slope from 2 to 4 percent.
 Gravel :4 to 6 percent
 grass shoulders : 6 to 8 percent slopes
 the color and texture of shoulders be different from those of the
traveled way
 to clearly define the traveled way at all times

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 II. Shoulders…(cont.)
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 Shoulders widths as recommended by the ERA design Guide

Design Standard Rural Terrain/Shoulder Width (m) Town Section Widths (m)
Flat Rolling Mountainous Escarpment Shoulder Parking Foot !
Lane*** way Median
DS1 3.0 3.0 0.5 – 2.5 0.5 – 2.5 n/a 3.5 2.5 5.0 (min)
(min)
DS2 3.0 3.0 0.5 – 2.5 0.5 – 2.5 n/a 3.5 2.5 Barrier!
DS3 1.5 - 3.0++ 1.5 - 3.0++ 0.5 – 1.5 0.5 – 1.5 n/a 3.5 2.5 n/a
DS4 1.5 1.5 0.5 0.5 n/a 3.5 2.5 n/a
DS5* 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 n/a 3.5+++ 2.5 n/a
DS6** 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 n/a 3.5+++ 2.5 n/a
DS7 1.0 (earth) 1.0 (earth) 1.0 (earth) 1.0 (earth) n/a n/a + n/a + n/a
DS8** 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 n/a n/a + n/a + n/a
DS9** 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 n/a n/a + n/a + n/a
DS10** 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 n/a n/a + n/a + n/a
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 III. Medians
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 Median is the portion of a highway separating opposing directions of

the traveled way.
 The principal functions:
 to separate opposing traffic
 provide a recovery area for out of- control vehicles,
 provide a stopping area in case of emergencies,
 allow space for speed changes and storage of left-turning and U-turning
vehicles,
 minimize headlight glare, and
 provide width for future lanes.
 Additional benefits:
 in an urban area are that it may offer an open green space,
 may provide a refuge area for pedestrians crossing the street, and
 may control the location of intersection traffic conflicts.
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 III. Medians…(cont.)
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 For maximum efficiency, a median should be highly visible both night and day
and should contrast with the traveled
 Median can be either raised, flush or depressed.
 median widths is from 1.2 to 24 m or more
 on freeways, a median barrier may be used

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 IV. Pavement Crowns
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 Pavement crown is the raising of the centerline of the

roadway above the elevation of the pavement edges
but not being so great as to make steering difficult.
 to provide adequate surface drainage
 normal crossfall should be 2.5% on paved roads and 4
5% on unpaved roads
 Unpaved shoulders on a paved road should be 1.5 %
steeper
 When four or more traffic lanes are used, it is
advisable to provide a higher rate of crown on the
outer
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 IV. Pavement Crowns….(cont.)
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 V. Curbs
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 A curb is a steep raised element at the edge of

roadway.
 functions:
 drainage control, roadway edge delineation,
 right-of-way reduction, aesthetics,
 delineation of pedestrian walkways,
 reduction of maintenance operations, and
 assistance in orderly roadside development.
 high-speed rural highways: at the outside edge of the
shoulder
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 V. Curbs..(cont.)
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 Vertical curbs may range from 150 to 200 mm in height.

 When the slope of the curb face is steeper than 1V:1H, and 1V:2H, the height
should be limited to about 150 mm.

ASTU Department of Civil Engineering 2012 E.C

 VI. Drainage Ditches
76

 function of collecting and conveying surface water

from the highway right-of-way.
 have adequate capacity for the design runoff
 The depth of channel should be sufficient to
remove surface water without saturation of the
subgrade
 minimum desirable grade: drainage velocities
needed to avoid sedimentation
 Generally, a broad, flat, rounded ditch section has
been
ASTU
found to be safer
Department of Civil Engineering 2012 E.C
 VII. Side slopes
77

 The graded area immediately adjacent to the graded roadway shoulder.

 Side slopes should be designed to insure the stability of the roadway
and to provide a reasonable opportunity for recovery of an out-of-
control vehicle.
 Fore slopes : 1V:4H up to 1V:6H
 Back slopes: 1V:6H to 1V:5H

ASTU Department of Civil Engineering 2012 E.C

 VIII. Guardrails
78

 A guardrail is provided where:

 fills are over 2.4 m in height,
 shoulder slopes are greater than 1V:4H,
 there is sudden change in alignment,
 great reduction in speed is necessary.
 deep roadside ditches, steep banks,
 right-of-way limitations,
 Guardrails (roadside barriers) should be located
beyond the edge of the shoulder to ensure that the
full shoulder width may be used.
ASTU Department of Civil Engineering 2012 E.C