Chapter three

Part III

1
3. THEORY OF TURBO MACHINES
4.1 Velocity triangles
4.2 The specific work of the blade
4.3 The capacity
4.4 The vane congruent flow
4.5 Deviation of actual flow from vane congruent flow
4.6 Head losses and efficiencies in centrifugal machines
4.7 Effect of geometry of the impeller on its performance
4.8 Performance characteristics of centrifugal machines

2
 3.7. Effect Of Geometry Of The Impeller On Its
Performance

At this stage the reader can determine the specific

energy (head), capacity and brake power of a centrifugal
machine if the geometry, speed of rotation and density
of the flow medium are known.
However not introduced as to how the given geometry
and speed are determined.
The process of determining the geometry and speed of
the impeller is known as design.
3
 To design an effective impeller for a given performance
the engineer has to know the effect of the various
geometric parameters of the impeller.
 In addition the knowledge will help the engineer to make
appropriate conclusion about each part of the machine
during selection, maintenance and installation.
 The next sections deal with the effect of the various
geometric parameters on the performance of turbo
machines.
4
3.7.1 Effect of Blade Angle  2 on the Specific Work
Yblade,

 The following section discusses how the specific

energy depends on the vane angle at the exit.

Y blade ,  u 2 c2u
 u 2 (u 2  c 2 m cot  2 )
 u  u 2 c2m
2
2 cot  2

Let A  u 22 and B  u 2 c2m

Y blade ,   A B cot  2
5
 Y blade ,   A B cot  2

2 00 900 1800
Y blade ,  u
2
2 

Y bl ade, :

Datum Blade angle

u
  cot
1 2

2 , datum
c
2m

  
The effect of the blade 2 angle on Y blade, 6
 The impeller blades are classified into three basic
types:
1. Backward [B2<90]
2. Radial [B2=90]
3. Forward based on the discharge angle [B2>90]

Backward Backward Forward

curved inclined Radial Tip Radial curved

Figure 3.35 Types of blades 7

 we also observe that for extremely forward curved
0
blades ( 2>>90 ) the theoretically transferable specific
energy by the blade is extremely high.
 This means that you can, theoretically, get a very small
impeller that can transfer a very large amount of energy
just by giving it high blade angle at the discharge. This
seems very attractive, because it will then enable us to
design very compact fluid machines.
 However it is not only the size (compactness) that
matters but also the efficiency of the pump
 The efficiency is highly related to the fraction of the
energy that is developed in the form of pressure energy.
 This fraction is known as degree of reaction of the
impeller and the static pressure energy is commonly
known as specific static rotor work. 8
 3.7.2 The Specific Static Rotor Work

 The specific work transferred from the impeller to the

fluid in the form of pressure energy is called specific
static rotor work Yp.
c
2
 c 02
Y Yp  3
Z guide
2
2 2
c c
Y   (1   guide )
3u 3u
Y p Energy loss in the guide
2 2



2
c3u
 guide




 c 3u 

1
guide
Y
Y p  Y 1  2
 Y blade  h


=

  h
2 u 2 

 
 9
 2
c3  c 02 2
Y Yp   Z guide c
2
Y p Y  3u
 guide
2
c3  c0 c3  c3m
2 2 2 2 2
c 3u
 
2 2 2  2
c3u 
  guide 
2
Y  Y 1  
Y blade  h 
p

c3u
2
 
 Z guide
2
 guide 
 
2 2
c3u c3u
2   guide 
2
Y  Y 1  
u c uh 
p
 2 3

c
2
 
 (1   guide )
3u
Z guide
2

  guide c3u 
c3u
2
c3u
2
Y  Y 1  
(1   guide ) h
p
Y p Y    2u 2 
2 2
10
 Degree of Reaction
 is the fraction of the useful energy transferred to the
flow medium, which is in the form of pressure energy.

R  Y P

For vane congruent c2u  u 2  c 2 m cot  2 

flow: R 1 1  
2u 2  2u 2 
 c 2 m cot  2 
 c
1 1
R  1   , R=0 for cot  2m

2 u2 
2
u 2
11
 For vane congruent flow
Y
R  P

Y c2u  u 2  c 2 m cot  2 
R 1 1  
  guide 
c3u
2u 2  2u 2 
Y  Y 1  
h
p

 2u 2  1  c 2 m cot  2 
R  1  
 guide 2  u2 
Y c3u
 1
p
R
Y h 2u 2

   c2m
1
R=0 for cot
guide=h 2
u 2

12
 Using the above equation the static rotor work can be
calculated just by multiplying R by Y.
 The curves for Y and Y
p blade, at different values of 2 are
as shown below

13
 When 2=900, the reaction R=0.5, and the theoretical
total head comprises the velocity head and static head
equal in value.

 Almost all pumps and compressors are provided with

backward curved blades b/c of efficiency.

 Fans can be provided with either of the five types

 Generally the blade angle  2 affects both the efficiency
and compactness of a turbo machine

14
 3.7.3 Shape Number and Specific Speed

 shape number or an equivalent one called specific speed

relates the shape of the impeller to its performance.

 By the shape of the impeller we mainly mean the ratio D1/

D2.

 The shape number is the dimensionless number that relates

the performance Q and Y of the impeller to the shape of the
impeller at a given impeller speed.

15
Derivation of A Shape number

 
 m 3  m 2 
N shape  n 1  Q  s  Y  
s
   s 2 
m: 3 2  0
s :     2   0
__________ __________

2   0 
2
1 3
for =1  
2 4 16
 n Q
N shape  3/4
Y
[Q]: m3/s, [n]: rps, [H]: m

Two modifications are made on the shape number to get

the specific speed, the constant term g is left out and
commonly used unit of rotational speed, rpm, is used for n.

n Q
The expression becomes: n 
q 3 /4

H
17
 The shape number and the specific speed are related by
the formula

N shape = 333 n q

Where:
n Q nq=Specific speed
n q 3 /4 n: impeller speed of rotation [rpm]
H Q: Volume flow rate [m3/s]
H=Head [ m]
18
 3.7.4 Relation between Specific speed and
Impeller Dimensions
 For vane congruent flow
Q=D1b1c1m
Assuming radial inlet flow
c1m= D1n tan 

Q  2
D
2
1 b 1 n tan  1
……..(1)

Y   h u c 2 2U
  h u 2




u2 
c2 m
tan  2




19
  
Y   1 
h u 2 
2 c2 m




 u 2 tan 2 

 c2m 
Y  h  2
D
2
n
2
1 



D 2 n tan  2 
2

b1 D
c2m  c1 m
1
(Continuity eq.)
b2 D 2

20
 b1 D 1
C  ( u 1 tan  )
1
2m

b2 D 2
2
D b1
c2m  1
n tan  1
D 2 b2

 2
 D 1   b 1  tan  
2  1  ……(2)
Y   h  D 2 n 1  
2 2

   
  b 2  tan
 
  D 2  2


21
 Substituting eq (1) and (2) in the eq. of specific speed

n Q
nq  3 /4
H

60 n [ rps ]  D b 1 n tan 

1 1
nq 3/4
  2  
  h 2 2 2   D 1   b1  tan  1  
  D 2 n 1     
  
  D 2   b 2  tan  2  
 g
  

22
 The relationship between specific speed and D1/D2 is
expressed graphically

2000

1500

1000
nq

500

0
0 0 .5 1

D 1 /D 2
Radial Axial
23
 Specific speed and shape of the impeller

10 20 40 60 120 300

24
 Specific speed is highly related with efficiency

 To get a performance that results in a very small specific

speed (very high head and relatively small capacity), we
need an impeller with narrow and long impellers that
result in high energy loss due to fluid friction.

 The fig below shows the relationship between efficiency,

specific speed and volume flow rate.

25
 100
Over 2300m3 /hr

90
2300m3 /hr

80 680m3 /hr
230m3 /hr
115 m3 /hr
Eff. %
70 45 m3 /hr

23 m3 /hr
60

50

40

10 20 40 60 120 300

Figure: Relationship between efficiency and specific speed and flow rate.
26
 The efficiency of centrifugal fluid machine falls very
rapidly for specific speed below 20. In such low specific
speeds the efficiency will be unacceptably low.

 In such cases, either positive displacement pumps or

multi stage pumps, with the impellers mounted on the
same shaft are used.

 Multi stage centrifugal machines are commonly

manufactured with impellers mounted on the same shaft.

27
 Figure Centrifugal impellers in series

 The number of stages can be determined easily if the

minimum allowable specific speed per stage is
determined.
28
 Determination of number of stages

H total iH i

n Q n Q
n q,i  3 /4
 3 /4
i
3 /4
 n q , total  i 3 / 4
H total  H total 
 
 i 
 Therefore the number of stages can be calculated by
the following formula.
4 /3
 n q, i 
i  
 n q , total 
 
Specific speed calculated from the required total head
and flow rate.
29
 3.7.5 Double Suction Impellers

 Unbalanced axial thrust on the impeller towards the

suction pipe occurs due to the difference in the
magnitude of the suction and discharge pressure.
 In single stage, large size pumps double suction
impellers are used to balance this axial thrust.

30
 Discharge
Discharge Pressure Discharge
Pressure Pressure

Discharge
Pressure

Suction Suction Suction

Pressure Pressure Pressure

Figure Balanced and Unbalanced Axial Thrust

31
• The fig below shows double suction impeller, it is
equivalent to two impellers working in parallel;
 Adv. It reduces maintenance cost due to unbalanced
axial trust.
 Disadv. Each impeller works in parallel with a flow rate of
half of the total. This results in a reduced specific speed
of each which leads in reduced efficiency.

32
3.7.6 Effect of Inlet Geometry and Speed of Pumps:
Cavitations

 If the pressure at any point in the suction is less than

the vapor pressure of the liquid, the liquid will vaporize
and form cavities of vapor. This vapor is carried out
with the liquid until it reaches to a place where a higher
pressure that collapse the vapor which results in
tremendous shock on the adjacent walls. This
Phenomena is called CAVITATION.
It results in
 erosion and wear on the impellers
Vibration and noise
Loss efficiency and loss capacity

33
 Avoiding Cavitations

 Cavitation can be avoided by making the suction

pressure greater than the vapor pressure.

 The quality of a centrifugal pump with respect to

cavitation is given by Net Positive Suction Head
Requirement (NPSHR) of the pump. (It is related to the
head loss inside the pump and dynamic head at the inlet
of the blade channel.)

 If NPSHR is large the quality of the pump is poor with

respect to avoiding cavitations

34
 The Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHA) is the
static pressure head of a given system that is above the
vapor pressure of the liquid at the pumping temperature.

 It is the measure of the safeness of the system with

respect to cavitation.

 Higher NPSHA means that the system is not susceptible

to cavitation.

35
 PA=atmospheric

pressure

 hA= PA/g

 es= Geodetic head

 zs= Friction loss

 hs= Total suction head

 PT= Vapor pressure at

the liquid temperature

36
T.
 At the inlet of the blade channel, the total suction head
is the total static head minus the friction loss, and the
elevation above the liquid surface , i.e., hs= hA – zs – es.

 The total suction head minus the vapor pressure head

gives the NPSHA.

 the main parameters that affect the NPSHR are the flow
angle 0, the pre-rotation factor and the speed of
rotation of the impeller

 To avoid cavitation NPSHA >NPSHR

37
 PT
NPSHA   h stat  NPSHR
g
PT
NPSHA  NPSHR  h stat 
g
To avoid cavitation:

NPSHA  NPSHR

38
 NPSHR is the characteristics of the pump and is
normally given with the pump data.
 For design purpose the NPSHR can be estimated by the
following formula.
2 2
w C
NPSHR  1 0
 2 0

2 2
Experimental values show that

1: 0.25 to 0.35

2: 1.1 to 1.3
39
• The optimum values of 0 that minimize NPSHR at 1=
0.3, 2 =1.2 for various pre-rotations are obtained by
differentiation and equating the result to zero.

• When there is no pre-rotation the optimum value of 0 is

17.30 which is presented in the graph below.

40
Fig. Optimum inlet flow angle - 0
41
 Suction Number and Suction Specific Speed

• A suction number is used to characterize pump with

respect to cavitation in design, selection and operation.

• The suction number is defined as

n Q
S q 3 /4

 NPSHR g
Some times the term suction specific speed is used.

n Q
Sq  3/4
 NPSHR 
42
 Suction number is influenced by the pre rotation.

 The higher the value of the suction number , Sq, the

better the quality of the pump with respect to avoiding
cavitations.

 slight pre-rotation (r=0.8) in the direction of impeller

rotation avoids cavitation best.(see the fig below)

43
the best flow angle  0 with respect to avoiding cavitation is
around 170.
For design purpose  0 =17.20 is commonly
used for a case of no-pre-rotation.
44
Table 3.3 Range of suction number and quality with regard to cavitations

Sq Comment

0.3 to 0.4 Low quality in regard to avoiding

cavitation

0.4 to 0.45 Normal

>0.45 High quality in regard to avoiding

cavitation

45
 Limit on the Speed

 Since increase in speed of rotation increases the

NPSHR, avoiding cavitation limits the speed of rotation
that can be used at safe condition regarding cavitation.

• It is know that n Q
Sq  3/4
 NPSHR g

4 /3

1 n Q 
NPSHR   
g  S q 

46
To avoid
cavitations:
4 /3

1 n Q 
NPSHA  NPSHR   
g  S q 
4 /3

1 n Q 
NPSHA   
g  S q 

3/4
S q  NPSHA g
n 
Q

47
Determination of NPSHA for some
typical cases

48
 PA PT
NPSHA   e s  h fs 
g g

 Note that the geodetic height es, is measured from

the liquid surface to the entrance of the suction blade.

 It is positive if we measure up from the liquid

surface and negative if we measure below the liquid
surface.

49
 Measures Outside the Pump for
Avoiding Cavitations
 As it is already indicated in the previous section the
quality of a pump with respect to cavitation is taken care
of during design and manufacturing of the pump.
 Carefully designed and manufactured pumps will have
low NPSHR.

 On the other hand cavitations can also be avoided by

measures outside the pump, these methods are based
on increasing the NPSHA so that the condition for no
cavitation,

i.e., NPSHA > NPSHR is satisfied.

50
a. Lower elevation (small es)
 lowering the value of the suction elevation es, increases
NPSHA.
 When the pump is below the surface of the liquid to be
pumped, es becomes negative hence it increases the
NPSHA.
 Therefore it is always better, with respect to avoiding
cavitation, to install the pump below the surface of the
liquid. This is usually simple when we transfer liquid
from one tank to another.
 In some cases, like pumping from a well if the NPSHR
is high, we have to use specially designed submersible
pumps so that the pump will be installed inside the
liquid without damaging the motor. 51
b. Minimum Temeprature
 When the pump is to be used in a system at various
temperatures it is advisable to install the pump so that
it suction side is at the lowest temperature side. This
will lead to a lower vapor pressure
P T so that will be
g
smaller, resulting in higher NPSHA.

52
c. Increase PA
 In some cases when the risk of cavitations is high, we
can increase the NPSHA by increasing PA.

 This can be done by bypassing some of the liquid from

the discharge line to the suction line. By so doing we
increase the static pressure of the suction side.

53
54
d. Minimum suction Head loss (small hfs)
 The suction piping should be short.

This means we have to install the pump as close to the

source as possible so that the suction piping gets
smaller.
 The suction piping should be as straight as possible:-

To minimize the minor losses ( losses in pipe fittings) we

have to make the suction piping as straight as possible.
 We have to use the discharge side valve for regulation.
Valves for regulation the flow rate, or control valves in
55
general should not be put at the suction side.
56
 Example
• A centrifugal pump is used to pump a liquid chemical
with a density of 860kg/m3. The vapor pressure of the
liquid at the pumping temperature is 40kPa. The friction
head loss in the suction pipe is 2.5m and the pressure PA
at the surface of the liquid is 1.013 bar. If the NPSH
requirement of the pump is 3m determine the elevation
es, above or below the liquid level that the pump has to
be installed to avoid cavitations.

57
 Example
• The sketch below shows the suction side of a pumping
system using centrifugal pump for pumping water at
500C from a hot spring well at a rate of 130 m3/hr. The
NPSH requirement of the pump is 5m determine, the
possibility of cavitation and if there is a possibility
suggests a method to avoid cavitation. The pipe is 5”-40,
commercial steel pipe and has a total length of 25m.

58
 Gate Valve D1a=120mm
90 0 regular elbow

3m
PA=1 atm

Foot Valve/Swing check

V

59