3.

THEORY OF TURBO MACHINES

3.1 Velocity triangles
3.2 The specific work of the blade
3.3 The capacity
3.4 The vane congruent flow
3.5 Deviation of actual flow from vane congruent flow
3.6 Head losses and efficiencies in centrifugal machines
3.7 Effect of geometry of the impeller on its performance
3.8 Performance characteristics of centrifugal machines
3.9 Additional points about turbo compressors
3.10 Limitations of turbo machines
 3.8 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF TURBO MACHINES

3.8.1Theoretical Performance Characteristic Curves

a) Theoretical Head Capacity Curve
For vane congruent flow with radial inlet flow,
0=900
 c2u u 2
H blade, g


Q
c2u  u2  c2m cot 2 c2m 
 D2 b2
Q cot 
c 2u  u 2  2
 Db 2 2

u u 2 Q cot  2
2
2
H blade,  
g g D2 b2
Replacing U2 with D2n
 D n   D nQ cot 
2

H
2 2
  2
blade,
g g Db2 2

Hblade, 
 D n 
ncot
2
Q
2

2
g g b2

For a given impeller, at a given speed

n cot  2  D2n
2
a  constant b  constant
g b2 g
Then,   aQ  b
H blade , 
 Where a and b are constants for a given impeller geometry and
speed.
 The nature of the theoretical head as a function of the flow rate
for different blade angles 2, speed (n) and impeller
diameter D2 can be studied.
 H blade, =f(Q) for an impeller at different 2 values
since a 
n cot  2
g b2

 For 2<900 cot 2>0 hence a>0

2=900 cot 2=0 hence a=0
2>900 cot 2<0 hence a<0
 3.8.2 Theoretical H-Q Curve for Different Speeds

 For a given impeller running at three different

speeds such that n1<n2<n3,
 D2 n12  D 2 n2 2  D 2 n3 2
b1   b2   b3 
g g g

n1 cot  2 n2 cot  2 n3 cot  2

a1   a2   a3 
b2 g b2 g b2 g
 3.8.3 Theoretical H-Q curve for different Impeller Diameters

 The theoretical H-Q curves for different diameters are very similar to Figure
4.49 except the fact that the slopes are the same even if the diameters are
different since the constant a does not depend on the impeller diameter.
 For three impellers running at the same speed, with difference only in their
diameter D2,1<D2,2< D2,3.


 D2,1 n 
2

 
 D 2, 2 n 
2

 
 D 2 ,3 n 
2

b1 b2 b3
g g g

n1 cot  2
a1   a 2  a3
b2 g
 b) Theoretical Power Curves Nth= f(Q)

• The theoretical power curve is obtained by

multiplying the theoretical head by the
volume flow rate and the density.

N th
 (  aQ 2  bQ ) g

 For 2<900 cot 2>0 hence a>0

2=900 cot 2=0 hence a=0
2>900 cot 2<0 hence a<0
 3.8.4 Actual Characteristic Curves

 The actual characteristic curves differ from the theoretical due

to the deviation of actual flow from vane congruent flow, the
hydraulic loss, and losses caused by off-design operation.
 The theoretical H-Q curves were in all cases straight lines,
however the actual curves are non-linear curves.
 From Figure 4.52, it is observed that to come from vane
congruent to actual flow we multiply the head from the vane
congruent by a factor that mainly depends only on 2 and z.
 To get H from H blade we subtract the hydraulic loss. There is
no hydraulic loss for Q=0 and it increases as the flow rate
increases.
 When a turbo machine is operated at a point other than the
design point the flow angles and the blade angles will not be
similar.
 The loss due to this difference is called shock loss.
 Its value is zero at the design point and increases as you move
away from it.
Typical actual power and efficiency curves for radial flow
impellers
 The actual characteristic curves of centrifugal pumps are
obtained by test and are usually reported in the same axes
 The point of maximum efficiency is commonly known as best
efficiency point or BEP.
3.8.5 Classification of Head- Capacity Curve Shapes

 The shapes of head-capacity curves are sometimes helpful in

selection and operation.
 The various types of characteristic curves and related
comments are given below.
Rising Characteristics
 In these types of curves the head increases continuously as
the capacity is decreased.
 They are typical for radial flow impellers with backward
curved blades.
Dropping Characteristic
 In this case there is a head greater than that developed at
shutoff.
 Such characteristic curves cause instability during operation,
causing variation in flow rates even when the machine works
against one head.
 Dropping characteristic curves are commonly obtained in
forward curved radial blade impellers.
 Steep Characteristic

 In such types of characteristic curves there is a

large difference in head between the best
efficiency point and the shutoff.
 Impellers with high specific speeds usually have
such curves.
 Flat characteristic

 A head- capacity curve in which the head varies

very slightly with capacity from shutoff to design
capacity is known as flat characteristic curve.
 Radial flow impellers with blade angle around
900 exhibit such characteristic curve.
 Characteristic curve in which only one capacity
is obtained at any one head is called stable.
 In some types of characteristic curves,
however, we may get two or more capacities at
one head, such characteristic curves are known
as unstable
 Dropping characteristic are examples of
unstable characteristic curves (See also Figure
4.59).
 Axial flow pumps also, usually have unstable
characteristic. Figure 4.59 is a typical axial flow
impeller characteristic.
 The Affinity Laws
 The variations of head, capacity and brake power with impeller
speed of turbo machines follow definite rules known as affinity
laws
 These laws were originally found experimentally, but have a
rigorous theoretical background.
 When applied to every point on the head capacity curve, they
expressed by the following laws:
 The capacity varies directly as the speed
 The head varies directly as the square of the speed
 The brake power (coupling power) varies directly as the cube of
the speed
 In all the calculations the overall efficiency of the fluid machine
is assumed to remain constant with speed for each point.

Example
 The head and capacity of a centrifugal water pump is running
at 1450 rpm are 64m and 240m3/hr respectively. The overall
efficiency of the pump at the mentioned working point is 75%.
The density of water at the pumping condition is 998kg/m3. If
the speed is changed to 1980 rpm, what will be the head,
capacity and brake power of the pump.
The Iso-effciency Curves
 Once the characteristic curve of a turbo
machine is obtained for a certain speed,
characteristic curves for other speeds can be
drawn using the affinity laws.
 Since the affinity laws are used for calculating
heads, flow rates and brake powers for the
same efficiency pints at various speeds, it is
easier to do the calculation and the curve for
the same efficiency point.
 The resulting curves are known as iso-
efficiency curves.
 procedure s to draw the iso-effciency curves when the H-Q and the efficiency
curves are given for one speed.

• Select certain efficiencies and the corresponding flow rates,

heads and brake powers.
• Note that except the best efficiency point a given efficiency
can correspond to two pints in the H-Q curve.
• Calculate H, Q, Nb for the same efficiency at various speeds and
mark and join these pints by a curve and they represent the
corresponding points for the same efficiency (iso-eficiency
point) at different speed.
• Joining the values of the head and Q for a given speed you get
the H-Q curve for that particular speed. (see Fig 4.60)
 3.9 ADDITIONAL POINTS ABOUT TURBO COMPRESSORS

3.9.1 Determining the Compression Ratio

 (Reading Assignment, similar to chapter 2)
k /( k 1)
 ad  2 2

  1   (u c  u c )  (c 3
 c 0
) 
 CpT1  
2 3u 1 0u
2
 
 3.9.2 Multistage Compression

 When the compression ratio =PD/PS is large it is difficult to

achieve the compression in a single stage. The reasons are:
 Since centrifugal and axial flow compressors are dynamic
machines increase in pressure is obtained through increase in
velocity of the flow medium in the compressor.
• However to get this high flow velocity, the tip speed of
the impeller (U2) should be very high, and this cannot be
achieved easily in one stage due to the limited strength
of the material from which the impeller is made.
 Adiabatic compression consumes much more power
than isothermal compression and the power increment
increases as the compression ratio increases.
• When the compression ratio is high the heat to be
removed to bring the compression close to isothermal
condition increases.
• The effective way to remove this large amount of heat
is to use multistage compression where the gas is
cooled using separate heat exchangers after each stage
of compression.
 Single stage designs with very high pressure
compression ratio results in low specific speed
impellers that have very low efficiency.
 3.9.3 Number of Stages

 The optimum number of stages in multistage compression can

be calculated easily by assuming the same compression ratio
at each stage and neglecting the pressure drop between the
stages.
 The latter assumption is reasonable since the pressure drop in
the coolers is small as compared to the pressure rise at each
stage.
 According to this assumption the suction pressure of a given
stage will be the discharge pressure of the previous stage.
 P1, D  P2, S 
Where Pi, S = The inlet pressure of stage i
P2, D  P3, S 
Pi, D = The discharge pressure of stage i

....... 
Pi , D  Pi 1, S 

For equal compression ratio at each stage

P1, D  P1,S 
2  If the total compression ratio required and the compression
P2, D  P2,S   P1,S  ratio per stage are tot and  respectively, the number of
 stages z is given by :
P3,D  P3,S   3 P1,S 
 PD , z 
 log  
.....   Ps ,1 
z
Pz, D   P1,S  z 
 
log( tot ) where
z tot=Total compression ratio
log( ) = Compression ratio of each stage
z=Number of stages
  
Cooling in Multistage Compression

 The theoretical amount of heat to be removed at each stage is

equal to the sensible heat to bring the gas back to the suction
temperature at each stage.
There are various types of cooling:
a) Inner cooling: - In this type of cooling, the cooling medium
(commonly water) is supplied through passages in the cast
casing intended for the cooling purpose.
 Inner cooling does not provide sufficient cooling for high
compression ratio. 
b) Inter cooling: - In this type of cooling the gas is cooled by a
heat exchanger between every stage or group of stages.
 A significant amount of saving can be achieved if the heat
exchanger provides sufficient heat transfer area.
Figure 4.62 shows the p-v diagram for compression without and with inter
cooler. Note that the shaded area is the energy saved due to intercooling.
c) Combined inner and intercooling :- This is the
most efficient and extensively used method.
 However, due to the complexity of the design the cost is
high. 
d) Direct cooling: - This is achieved by directly injecting
cooling medium (oil or water) into the flow medium.
 The oil/water should later be separated from the
compressed gas if it is in a level that cannot be tolerated.
 3.10 LIMITATIONS OF TURBO MACHINES

3.10.1 Limitations of Centrifugal and Axial Flow Pumps

1) Need of Priming
 Centrifugal and axial flow pumps cannot start pumping
unless the air in the suction pipe is replaced with liquid.
 The process of replacing the air with liquid is known as
priming.
 Priming is necessary in centrifugal pumps because they
do not develop sufficient vacuum to lift liquid as far as
there is air is in the suction line.
 Unlike positive displacement pumps centrifugal and axial
flow pumps develop a certain maximum head
 This head will not be sufficient to raise a liquid to any
considerable distance if the pump is filled with gas.
Consider a centrifugal water pump with a maximum
head of 60m whose suction is filled with air.
 Since the velocity triangle from which we calculate the
head does not depend on the type of fluid (whether
liquid or gas) it will transfer a maximum head of 60m
to the air.
 Assuming the density of air to be 1.2 kg/m3 the total
pressure developed will be P=1.2 9.8160=706.3 Pa.
 This pressure however will lift the water, density=1000
kg/m3, H= 706.3/ (1000* 9.81)=0.072 m or just 7.2cm.
 This however, in most cases, will not be sufficient to
cover even the friction loss.
 Therefore priming is necessary when centrifugal and
axial flow pumps are installed above the liquid surface.
 Methods of Priming

 The simplest and cheapest way to prime a centrifugal pump is

accomplished during installation.
 Whenever possible it is good to install the pump below the
liquid level, in that case no special priming mechanism is
required.
 Just opening the suction valve and the vent will let the liquid
flow by gravity and push the air out.
 However, sometimes we will be forced to install the pump
above the liquid level (with suction lift). In such situations we
need special means of priming. Some of these priming
methods are:
 Using foot valve
 Using priming chambers
 Using Vacuum devices
 Foot Valves

 A foot valve is a form of check valve installed

at the bottom or foot of a suction line.
 Like any check valve, it allows flow in one
direction only-toward the pump.
 When the pump is stopped and the ports of
the valve close, if the valve seats tightly, the
liquid cannot drain back to the suction well.
 Unfortunately a foot valve does not always
seat tightly, and the pump occasionally loses
its prime.
Foot valves have another serious drawback.

They cause significant pressure drop which may increase the pumping cost and
also reduces the NPSHA significantly.

Due to this, foot valves are not common in modern installations.

  
Priming Chambers

 A priming chamber consists of a priming tank and suction and

discharge openings that are connected to the suction line at
the top and suction nozzle of the pump at the bottom
respectively.
 The pump will be primed by gravity from the tank.
 Once the pump is primed and started, vacuum will be created
at the top of the priming tank.
 The liquid from the source will flow to the tank due to the
pressure difference between the source which is at higher
pressure and the priming tank
 For proper operation the volume of the tank
should be approximately three times the
volume of the suction piping.
 It is usually more advantageous to buy a
commercial priming chamber with proper
automatic vents and other features.
 The use of priming chambers is restricted
because of their size to relatively small pumps.
  
Vacuum Devices

 Almost every commercially made vacuum producing device

can be used with systems in which pumps are primed by
evacuating air. Among these are
 Ejectors ( discussed in chapter 2)
 Positive displacement pumps ( reciprocating and rotary)
 If there are several centrifugal pumps to be primed, one
priming device can serve all. Such an arrangement is known as
a central automatic priming system.
 2) Pumping Viscous Liquids

 Centrifugal and axial flow pumps have very

limited capacities in handling viscous liquids.
 Since they are dynamic pumps, the velocity of
the flow medium inside the pump is very high.
 The disc friction losses and hydraulic loss
increase significantly when the viscosity
increases.
 Therefore these pumps are not normally used
in pumping viscous liquids.
 3) Air or Gas in the Liquid

 The head capacity curve of centrifugal pumps

deteriorates significantly even if as little as one
percent of air or gas is present in the liquid to
be pumped.
 As the percentage of air in the liquid increases
the effect becomes drastic and the pump may
stop to perform satisfactorily with as much as
6% air.
 3.10.2 Limitation of Turbo Compressors
 Proper operation of compressors put limits to
the maximum and minimum flow rates
beyond which the compressor should not be
operated.
 Too small flow rates cause instability in the
compression system widely known as surge.
 Operating at extremely high flow rates may
lead to a phenomena called choking.
 1) Surge
 Operation of compressors at much lower capacity
leads to instability commonly known as surge.
 Changes in operation conditions of compressors
pressure and the molecular weight (if a mixture
of varying composition is compressed) can also
cause instability.
 Surge is characterized by intense and rapid flow
and pressure fluctuations.
 This phenomenon is generally accompanied by
strong noise and violent vibration which can
severely damage the machines involved.
 Surge prevention is effected through experimental tests in
which pressure pulsation at low flow rates is measured on the
individual stages.
 On this basis, it is possible to identify the flow values at
which stable operation of the stage is guaranteed.
 Then the surge limit is identified and is commonly presented
with the H-Q curve of each stage of compressor.
 Knowledge of the operating limits of each stage can then be
used to evaluate the corresponding operating limits of the
machine as a whole.
 Figure 4.66 shows a characteristic curve (compressor map)
with the surge limit.
 The engineer has to make sure that a compressor stage is
operated at flow rate well above the surge line for a given
head
 2) Choking

 Choking or stonewall is a condition at which

increased capacity results in a rapid decrease in
head.
 Choking occurs when the Mach number of the flow
medium inside a centrifugal compressor approaches
one.
 Under this condition increased capacity results in
rapid decrease in head and it can also cause damage.
 In this condition no further increase in flow rate will
be possible and there will be rapid, abrupt decrease
in the performance of the stage.
 The occurrence of choking depends not only on the
geometry and operating conditions of the stage, but also
on the thermodynamic properties of the fluid.
 In this regard, chocking can be particularly limiting for
machines operating with fluids of higher molecular
weight, such as coolants.
 A good design will have a Mach number less than or
equal to 0.9.
 Many types of compressors normally operate in
conditions far from choking.
 For these machines, the maximum flow limit is
frequently defined as the flow corresponding to a
prescribed reduction in efficiency in respect to the peak
value.