EXCRETION

UNIT 1
 INTRODUCTION TO EXCRETION

• Excretion is the removal of the waste products of metabolism.

• Excretion is necessary to prevent the build –up of toxic waste and also because of the constraints
of space for storage
• Plants have no need for an excretory system as most of their waste products are gaseous and they
diffuse though stomata, also because of their autotrophic way of feeding, they have less
nitrogenous waste which are stored in various organs until they lose the organ
• In animals , the main excretory product is nitrogenous waste which is toxic
• In animals, the elimination of excretory products is tied to the maintenance of the correct balance
between water and solutes in the body, thus excretion and the homeostatic process of
osmoregulation are bound together
 SOME EXCRETORY PRODUCTS
PRODUCT SOURCE
oxygen Photosynthesis in autotrophs
Carbon dioxide Aerobic respiration and alcohol fermentation
water Aerobic respiration and condensation
ions Nutrient metabolism
Bile salts Lipid metabolism in the liver
Bile pigments Breakdown of haemoglobin in the liver
Tannins and other organic acids Protein metabolism in plants
Urea, ammonia and uric acid Protein and nucleic acid metabolism in animals
FORMATION OF UREA IN THE LIVER
THE URINARY SYSTEM
 STRUCTURE OF A NEPHRON

Vasa Recta
 FUNCTIONS OF THE KIDNEYS
Excretion -the kidneys are the main organs of excretion – they carry out three separate but related
processes:
• Ultra filtration –filtration under high pressure and at the molecular level- this takes place as substances
are forced out of the glomerulus and into the Bowman’s Capsule
• Selective Reabsorption – desirable ions and nutrients and most of the water are recaptured from the
filtrate and taken back into blood
• Secretion – as the filtrate travels along the nephron, additional substances are added to the filtrate from
blood.
Osmoregulation – the kidneys are largely responsible for maintaining the correct balance of water and
solutes by ensuring most of the water from the filtrate is absorbed and making adjustments based on the
neds of the body fluids
MICROGRAPH OF KIDNEY - CORTEX
MICROGRAPH – KIDNEY MEDULLA
ULTRAFILTRATI
ON
A high pressure is created by:
• The afferent arteriole is wider than the efferent
• The glomerulus is made of a tangle of
capillaries
• The capillaries themselves are very narrow

The high pressure forces most of the plasma into

the Bowman’s Capsule but blood cells, platelets
and large plasma proteins are too large to pass
through.
THE FILTRATION MEMBRANE

During ultra-filtration, substances squeeze

through filtration pores in the capillary
walls and then pass through a continuous
structure called the basement membrane,
which is made of collagen and
glycoproteins. The basement membrane
acts as the fine filter and keeps out
molecules above 69,000 RMM.

Some cells of the Bowman’s capsule have

foot-like extensions and are called
podocytes – these act as the coarse filter
STRUCTURE OF THE PCT

The PCT has the following adaptations for

reabsorption:
• The walls are thick as there are a lot of metabolic
activities
• Microvilli forming a brush border on the inner
side which projects into the lumen the lumen –
this increases surface area, creating more space
for transporting proteins to move substances from
the filtrate into the cells
• In-foldings on the outer wall also to increase
surface area for substances to move from the cells
back into blood
• Numerous mitochondria to operate pumps
• Vesicles for endocytosis
• Tight junctions so substances must pass through
the membrane, which exercises selectivity
 SELECTIVE REABSORPTION IN PCT
Absorption from lumen into cells:

• Glucose, amino acids, some ions, vitamins and hormones enter by co-transport (symport) because of
Na+ pumps which pump Na+ ions into the lumen, allowing those substances to move along the gradient
created.

• Water moves by osmosis as the pumping out of NA+ ions lowers the water potential in the filtrate

• Fat soluble substances diffuse through the membrane, as they are non-polar

• Some urea also diffuse along their concentration gradient as they are relatively small molecules

• Small plasma proteins enter by pinocytosis

Absorption into capillaries from cells:

On the outer membrane facing the capillaries, are Na+/K+ pumps , which pump out 3 Na+ ions and pump in
2K+ ions. This creates an electrochemical gradient, along which substances move by facilitated diffusion into
interstitial space and then into the capillaries
SECRETION

The arrows going into the tubule

indicate substances that are secreted out
of blood and into the tubules, from
which they will be excreted. These
include drugs, toxins, ammonium,
potassium and hydrogen ions, so the
purpose of secretion is to:
• Maintain a pH balance
• Get rid of toxins
• Get rid of substances that were not
filtered

Movement can be passive or passive

e.g. ammonia diffuses while H+ K+ ,
creatinine , histamine and penicillin are
actively transported
 LOOP OF HENLE AND THE COUNTER-CURRENT
MULTIPLIER
The loop of Henle concentrates urine by bringing about a high salt concentration in the medulla, which causes a
vigorous osmotic outflow of water from the DCT and collecting ducts.

To do this, the Loop employs the counter-current mechanism, in which salts are actively pumped out of the
ascending limb , lowering the salt concentration relative to the descending limb.

The overall effect is multiplied by the length of the loop, hence animals that need to conserve a lot of water have a
very long Loop of Henle and a deep medulla in their kidneys. The longer the Loop of Henle, the greater the
counter-current multiplier effect.

The capillaries in the medulla which make up the vasa recta, have the same loop shape and therefore also operate
on a counter current system, ensuring that the high concentration of salt in the medulla is not dissipated.
 URINE CONCENTRATION IN THE NEPHRON
Glomerular filtrate enters the tubule at the same
osmolarity of blood (300mOsm/L)
The following take place:
• Na+ ions pumped out of ascending limb, Cl- follow
• Water moves out of descending limb by osmosis
• Water carried away by vasa recta
• Filtrate becomes more concentrated as it descends
• Most concentrated at the hairpin bend
• Becomes less concentrated as it ascends due to the
pumping out of ions
• At the top of the ascending limb, the filtrate is at its
most dilute
• Permeability of tubule to water determined by
amount of ADH (determined by concentration of
blood)
• As it travels through the DCT and collecting ducts
through the salty medulla, water is vigorously
drawn out and urine is concentrated (1200mOsm/L)
Note the thickness of the ascending limb-because of high
metabolic activity, also impermeability to water.
OSMOREGULATION

ADH is actually produced in the pituitary

gland but is stored and released by the
posterior pituitary gland in response to
changes in the osmotic pressure of blood.
 COMPONENTS OF BLOOD

Not filtered –remain Filtered into tubule Reabsorbed from Secreted from blood Excreted as urine
in blood (RMM <69,000) tubule back into into tubule
blood
Erythrocytes Water SOME NH3 Water
Leucocytes Salts • Water Ca2+ Urea
Platelets Glucose • Salts K+ Salts
Plasma proteins e.g. Amino acids • Urea H+ Bile pigments
albumin, globulin, Urea • Vitamins Creatinine Bile salts all secreted
fibrinogen, Vitamins • Hormones Histamine substances
prothrombin Hormones • Small proteins penicillin
Small plasma ALL
proteins • Glucose
Bile salts and • Amino acids
pigments
TESTING BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVEL
All glucose should be reabsorbed, so there
should be none in urine, however the presence of
glucose in urine is more likely to be a problem
with the pancreas rather than the kidneys.

Blood glucose level is homeostatically

controlled at about 80mg/100cm3.

If a person has a level that is significantly higher

than this, it is likely that they are suffering from
diabetes and they are either not producing
enough insulin or are not able to use it well and
it is also likely that there will be some glucose in
their urine, as even properly functioning kidneys
cannot reabsorb more than a certain amount of
glucose
PROTEINURIA

Proteins should not filter into nephrons as they are too large and
therefore should never be found in urine.
Proteinuria is therefore a sign of poor kidney functioning and can
range from simple to serious conditions including:
• Glomerulonephritis – inflammation of the kidneys
• Immune disorders e.g. lupus
• Cancer–multiple myeloma or kidney cancer
• Cardiovascular disease
• Abnormal blood pressure
• Trauma or stress
• Dehydration
• Blood thinners
• Congestive heart failure