Chapter 3

Error Detection, Correction

and Wireless Communication
 Basic concepts
 Networks must be able to transfer data from
one device to another with complete accuracy.
 Data can be corrupted during transmission.
 For reliable communication, errors must be
detected and corrected.
 Error detection and correction
are implemented either at the data link
layer or the transport layer of the OSI
model.
Types of Errors
Single-bit error
 Single bit errors are the least likely type of
errors in serial data transmission because
the noise must have a very short duration
which is very rare. However this kind of
errors can happen in parallel transmission.
Example:
 If data is sent at 1Mbps then each bit lasts
only 1/1,000,000 sec. or 1 μs.
 For a single-bit error to occur, the noise
must have a duration of only 1 μs, which is
very rare.
Burst error
The term burst error means that two or
more bits in the data unit have changed
from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1.

Burst errors does not necessarily mean that

the errors occur in consecutive bits, the
length of the burst is measured from the
first corrupted bit to the last corrupted bit.
Some bits in between may not have been
corrupted.
 Burst error is most likely to happen in serial
transmission since the duration of noise is
normally longer than the duration of a bit.
 The number of bits affected depends on the data
rate and duration of noise.
Example:
 Ifdata is sent at rate = 1Kbps then a noise of 1/100 sec
can affect 10 bits.(1/100*1000)

 Ifsame data is sent at rate = 1Mbps then a noise of

1/100 sec can affect 10,000 bits.(1/100*106)
 Error detection
Error detection means to decide whether the
received data is correct or not without having a
copy of the original message.

Error detection uses the concept of

redundancy, which means adding extra bits for
detecting errors at the destination.
Redundancy
Four types of redundancy checks are used
in data communications
Vertical Redundancy Check
VRC
Performance

 It can detect single bit error

 It can detect burst errors only if the total
number of errors is odd.
Longitudinal Redundancy Check
LRC
 Performance

LCR increases the likelihood of detecting

burst errors.
If two bits in one data units are damaged
and two bits in exactly the same positions in
another data unit are also damaged, the
LRC checker will not detect an error.
VRC and LRC
Cyclic Redundancy Check
CRC
Cyclic Redundancy Check
 Given a k-bit frame or message, the
transmitter generates an n-bit sequence,
known as a frame check sequence (FCS),
so that the resulting frame, consisting of
(k+n) bits, is exactly divisible by some
predetermined number.
 The receiver then divides the incoming
frame by the same number and, if there is
no remainder, assumes that there was no
error.
Binary Division
Polynomial
Polynomial and Divisor
Standard Polynomials
Checksum
At the sender
 The unit is divided into k sections, each of
n bits.
 All sections are added together using one’s
complement to get the sum.
 The sum is complemented and becomes the
checksum.
 The checksum is sent with the data
At the receiver
 The unit is divided into k sections, each of
n bits.
 All sections are added together using one’s
complement to get the sum.
 The sum is complemented.
 If the result is zero, the data are accepted:
otherwise, they are rejected.
Performance
 The checksum detects all errors involving an
odd number of bits.
 It detects most errors involving an even
number of bits.
 If one or more bits of a segment are damaged
and the corresponding bit or bits of opposite
value in a second segment are also damaged,
the sums of those columns will not change and
the receiver will not detect a problem.
Error Correction
It can be handled in two ways:
1) receiver can have the sender retransmit the
entire data unit.
2) The receiver can use an error-correcting
code, which automatically corrects certain
errors.
Single-bit error correction
To correct an error, the receiver reverses the value
of the altered bit. To do so, it must know which bit
is in error.
Number of redundancy bits needed
 Let data bits = m
 Redundancy bits = r

Total message sent = m+r

The value of r must satisfy the following relation:
2r ≥ m+r+1
Error Correction
Hamming Code
Hamming Code
Hamming Code
Example of Hamming Code
Single-bit error
Error
Detection
IEEE-802 STANDARDS
 Local Area Network
 A Local area Network is the data communication
system that allows a number of independent devices
to communicate directly with each other in a limited
geographical area.
 LANs are dominated by four architecture:
 Ethernet
 Token Bus
 Token Ring
 Fiber distributed data interface
 Token Bus, Token Ring and Ethernet are standards of
IEEE and a part of project 802.
 Project 802
 The computer society of the IEEE started a
project, called 802 to set up standards to
enable intercommunication between
equipment from a variety of manufacturers.
 Project 802 does not seek to replace any part
of the OSI model.
 The IEEE has subdivided the data link layer
into sub layers:
 Logical link control(LLC)
 Medium access control(MAC)
 The LLC is non architecture specific, that is
the same for all IEEE defined LANs.
 The MAC sublayer on the other hand, contains
a number of distinct modules, each carries
proprietary information specific to the LAN
product being used.
 The strength of project 802 is modularity.
 By subdividing the function necessary for
LAN management, the designers were able to
standardize those that can be generalized and
to isolate those that must remain specific.
 Each sub division is identified by a number:
 802.1 (Internetworking)
 802.2 (LLC)
 802.3 (MAC)
 802.4 (Token Bus)
 802.5 (Token Ring)
LAN compared with OSI model
Project 802
 IEEE 802.1
 IEEE 802.1 is the section of Project 802
devoted to internetworking issues in LANs
and MANs.
 It seeks to resolve the incompatibilities
between network architectures without
requiring modifications in existing addressing
access and error recovery mechanisms,
among others.
 802.2 Logical Link Control
 The technical definition for 802.2 is "the standard for the upper
Data Link Layer sublayer also known as the Logical Link Control
layer. It is used with the 802.3, 802.4, and 802.5 standards (lower
DL sublayers).“
 802.2 "specifies the general interface between the network
layer (IP, IPX, etc) and the data link layer (Ethernet, Token
Ring, etc).
 Basically, think of the 802.2 as the "translator" for the Data
Link Layer. 802.2 is concerned with managing traffic over the
physical network. It is responsible for flow and error control.
 The Data Link Layer wants to send some data over the
network, 802.2 Logical Link Control helps make this possible.
It also helps by identifying the line protocol, like NetBIOS, or
Netware.
 Medium Access Control
 The second set of functions, the MAC sub
layer, resolves the contention for the shared
media.
 It contains the synchronization, flag, flow, and
error control specifications necessary to move
information from one place to another as well
as the physical address of the next station to
receive and route packet.
 MAC is the lower sub layer of the data link
layer.
 Protocol Data Unit
 The data unit in the LLC level is called the
PDU.
 The PDU contains four fields familiar from
HDLC: a destination services access point
(DSAP), a source service access point
(SSAP), a control field, and an information
field.
 DSAP and SAP
 The DSAP and SSAP are addresses used by
the LLC to identify the protocol stacks on the
receiving and sending machines that are
generating and using the data.
 The first bit of the DSAP indicates whether
the frame in intended for an individual or a
group.
 The first bit of the SSAP indicates whether
the communication is a command or response
PDU.
 Control
 The control field of the PDU is identical to
the control field in HDLC.
 As in HDLC, PDU frames can be I-frames, S-
frames, or U-frames and carry all of the codes
and information that the corresponding HDLC
frames carry.
802.3 Ethernet MAC
 802.3 is the standard which Ethernet operates by. It is the
standard for CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Detection). This standard encompasses both the
MAC and Physical Layer standards.
 CSMA/CD is what Ethernet uses to control access to the
network medium (network cable). If there is no data, any node
may attempt to transmit, if the nodes detect a collision, both
stop transmitting and wait a random amount of time before
retransmitting the data.
Token Bus (IEEE 802.4)
 In a token bus LAN, the physical media is a bus or a tree and a
logical ring is created using coaxial cable.
 The token is passed from one user to other in a sequence
(clockwise or anticlockwise). Each station knows the address
of the station to its “left” and “right” as per the sequence in the
logical ring.
 A station can only transmit data when it has the token. The
working of token bus is somewhat similar to Token Ring.
802.5 Token Ring
 Token ring is designed to use the ring topology
and utilizes a token to control the transmission of
data on the network.
 The token is a special frame which is designed to
travel from node to node around the ring.
 The token ring network is designed in such a way
that each node on the network is guaranteed
access to the token at some point. This equalizes
the data transfer on the network
IEEE 802.11 or WiFi
 Wireless LANs are those Local Area Networks that use high
frequency radio waves instead of cables for connecting the
devices in LAN.
 Users connected by WLANs can move around within the area
of network coverage. Most WLANs are based upon the
standard IEEE 802.11 or WiFi.
IEEE 802.11 Architecture
The components of an IEEE
802.11 architecture
 1) Stations (STA) − Stations comprise all devices and
equipments that are connected to the wireless LAN. A station
can be of two types:
 Wireless Access Pointz (WAP) − WAPs or simply access
points (AP) are generally wireless routers that form the base
stations or access.
 Client. − Clients are workstations, computers, laptops, printers,
smartphones, etc.
 Each station has a wireless network interface controller.
The components of an IEEE
802.11 architecture
 2) Basic Service Set (BSS) −A basic service set is a group of
stations communicating at physical layer level. BSS can be of
two categories depending upon mode of operation:
 Infrastructure BSS − Here, the devices communicate with
other devices through access points.
 Independent BSS − Here, the devices communicate in peer-to-
peer basis in an ad hoc manner.
 3) Extended Service Set (ESS) − It is a set of all connected
BSS.
 4) Distribution System (DS) − It connects access points in
ESS.
Advantages of WLANs
 They provide clutter free homes, offices and other networked
places.
 The LANs are scalable in nature, i.e. devices may be added or
removed from the network at a greater ease than wired LANs.
 Installation and setup is much easier than wired counterparts.
 The equipment and setup costs are reduced.

Disadvantages of WLANs
 Since radio waves are used for communications, the signals are
noisier with more interference from nearby systems.
 Greater care is needed for encrypting information. Also, they
are more prone to errors. So, they require greater bandwidth
than the wired LANs.
 WLANs are slower than wired LANs.
☼ Bluetooth is an open standard for short-range
What Is Bluetooth?
digital radio to interconnect a variety of devices Cell
phones, PDA, notebook computers, modems,
cordless phones, pagers, laptop computers, printers,
cameras by developing a single-chip, low-cost,
radio-based wireless network technology
Bluetooth
 Simplifying communications between:
- devices and the internet
- data synchronization
 Operates in licensed exempt ISM band at 2.4ghz
 Uses frequency hoping spread spectrum
 Omni directional, no requiring line of sight
 Bluetooth offers data speeds of up to 1 Mbps up to 10
meters (Short range wireless radio technology )
 Unlike IrDA, Bluetooth supports a LAN-like mode
where multiple devices can interact with each other.
 The key limitations of Bluetooth are security and
interference with wireless LANs.
 Short range wireless radio technology
Bluetooth
 Bluetooth is a PAN Technology
 Offers fast and reliable transmission for
both voice and data
 Can support either one asynchronous data
channel with up to three simultaneous
synchronous speech channels or one channel
that transfers asynchronous data and
synchronous speech simultaneously
 Support both packet-switching and circuit-
switching
 Piconet
One unit acts as the master of the Piconet,
whereas the others acts as slaves.
 Up to seven slaves can be active.
 More slaves can be synchronized & locked to the
master in parked state.
 The channel access for all the slaves in a piconet
is controlled by the master.
Piconet (2)
 Scatternet
 Scatternet is formed by multiple Piconets with
overlapping coverage areas.
 Each Piconet can only have a single master
 Slaves can participate in different Piconets on a
time-division multiplex basis.
 A master in one Piconet can be a slave in
another Piconet.
 Each Piconet has its own hopping channel in a
Scatternet.
Scatternet (2)
Mobile Generation 1G,
2G, 3G, 4G, 5G
 G?
• G  Generation

• Generation of wireless phone technology

 1G
• Frequency: 150MHz / • From 1980 to 1990
900MHz • Bad voice quality
• Bandwidth: Analog • Poor battery, cellphones
telecommunication • Big cellphones
(30KHz)
• Characteristic: First
• Better than nothing, at
wireless communication
least its wireless and
• Technology: Analog mobile
cellular
• Capacity (data rate):
2kbps
 2G
• Frequency: 1.8GHz
(900MHz), digital
telecommunication
• Bandwidth: 900MHz
(25MHz)
• Characteristic: Digital
• Technology: Digital
cellular, GSM
• Capacity (data rate):
64kbps
• Why better than 1G?
• From 1991 to 2000
• Allows txt msg service
• Signal must be strong or
else weak digital signal
• 2.5G
– 2G cellular technology with
GPRS
– E-Mails
– Web browsing
– Camera phones
 3G
• Frequency: 1.6 – 2.0 • From 2000 to 2010
GHz • Called smartphones
• Bandwidth: 100MHz • Video calls
• Characteristic: Digital • Fast communication
broadband, increased • Mobil TV
speed
• 3G phones rather
• Technology: CDMA, expensive
UMTS, EDGE
• Capacity (data rate):
144kbps – 2Mbps

• Why better than 2G?

 4G
• Frequency: 2 – 8 GHz
• Bandwidth: 100MHz
• Characteristic: High
speed, all IP
• Technology: LTE, WiFi
• Capacity (data rate):
100Mbps – 1Gbps
• Why better than 3G?
• From 2010 to today
(2020?)
• MAGIC
– Mobile multimedia
– Anytime, anywhere
– Global mobile support
– Integrated wireless
solutions
– Customized personal
service
• Good QoS + high security
• Bigger battery usage
 5G
• https://5g.co.uk/guides
/5g-frequencies-in-the-
uk-what-you-need-to-
know/
• Capacity (data rate):
1Gbps – ULIMITED?
• Why better than 4G?
• From X (2020?) to Y
(2030?)
• High speed and capacity
• Faster datatrasmission
than 4G
• Supports
– Interactive multimedia
– Voice streaming
– Buckle up.. Internett
• More efficient
 1G
Comparison 2G 3G 4G 5G
Period 1980 – 1990 1990 – 2000 2000 – 2010 2010 – (2020) (2020 - 2030)

Bandwidth 150/900MHz 900MHz 100MHz 100MHz 1000x BW pr unit

area

Frequency Analog signal (30 1.8GHz 1.6 – 2.0 GHz 2 – 8 GHz 3 – 300 GHz
KHz) (digital)

Data rate 2kbps 64kbps 144kbps – 2Mbps 100Mbps – 1Gbps 1Gbps <

Characteristic First wireless Digital Digital broadband, High speed, all IP

communicatio n increased speed

Technology Analog cellular Digital cellular CDMA, UMTS, LTE, WiFi WWWW
• https://www.lin
(GSM) EDGE kedin.com/puls
e/evolution-
mobile-
communication
-from-1g-4g-5g- 6g-
7g-pmp-cfps
Comparison