Chapter 2: Atomic Structure &

Interatomic Bonding
Course Objective...
Introduce fundamental concepts in atomic structure &
interatomic bonding

You will learn about:

 What promotes bonding?
 What types of bonds are there?
 What properties are inferred from the bonding?

Course Outcomes…
 Able
1 to describe the nature and structure of an atom as well as its
electronic structure
 Able to describe various types of primary and secondary bonds
differentiate between them
 Chapter Outlines:

2.1 Review of Atomic Structure

Electrons, Protons, Neutrons, Quantum mechanics of atoms, Electron
states, The Periodic Table

2.2 Primary Inter atomic Bonds

Ionic, Covalent, Metallic

2.3 Secondary Bonding (Van der Waals)

Two types of Dipole Bonds

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 ATOM

NUCLEUS

3
 Bohr atomic model

Atoms = nucleus (protons & neutrons) + electrons

 Electron are assumed to revolved around the atomic

nucleus in discrete orbital, and the position of any
particular electron is more or less well defined in
terms of its orbital.

 Thenucleus of an atom contains all the neutrons and

protons.
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2.1.1 Electron

 Tiny
 Very light particles
 Negative electrical charge
 Mass 9.11 x 10 -31 (kg)
 Coulombs charge – 1.602 x 10 -19 (C)

2.1.2 Proton

 Larger and heavier than electrons

 Positive charge
 Mass 1.67 x 10 -27 (kg)
 Coulombs charge + 1.602 x 10 -19 (C).

2.1.3 Neutron

 Large and heavy like protons

 Neutral charge
 Mass 1.67 x 10 -27 (kg)
 Coulombs charge 0 (C) 5
 Components in Mass (kg) Charge (C)
atom

Proton 1.67 x 10 -27 + 1.602 x 10 -19

Neutron 1.67 x 10 -27 0

neutron

Electron 9.11 x 10 -31 – 1.602 x 10 -19

Table 2.1 The mass and charge of the proton, neutron and electron 6
2.1.4 Atomic Number (Z)

 Protons gives chemical identification of the element

 Protons = atomic number (Z)

2.1.5 Atomic Mass (A)

 The summation of the masses of protons and masses of neutrons within the
nucleus
 Atomic mass = mass of protons + mass of neutrons
 Number of protons is the same for all atoms of a given element, but the
number of neutrons may be variable
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2.1.6 Isotope

 element but have different atomic mass (same no of proton but different no
of neutron)
 Example:
uranium (U) – atomic number 92

92u & u
235 238
92

2.1.7 Atomic Mass Unit (amu)

 Is often used to express atomic weight

 1 amu is defined as 1/12 of the atomic mass of the most common isotope of
carbon atom that has 6 protons (Z=6) and 6 neutrons (N=6)

M proton ≈ M neutron = 1.66 x 10-24 g = 1 amu.

The atomic mass of the 12C atom is 12 amu. 8
2.1.8 Atomic Weight of an Element

 weighted average of the atomic masses of the atoms naturally occurring

isotopes. Atomic weight of carbon is 12.011 amu.
 The atomic weight is often specified in mass per mole.

2.1.9 Mole

 is the amount of matter that has a mass in grams equal to the atomic mass in
amu of the atoms (A mole of carbon has a mass of 12 grams)
 The number of atoms in a mole is called the Avogadro number,
Nav = 6.023 × 1023

Nav = 1 gram/1 amu.

Example:
Atomic weight of iron = 55.85 amu/atom = 55.85 g/mol 9
SIMPLE CALCULATIONS
The number of atoms per cm3 (n), for material of density (d) (g/cm3) and atomic
mass (M) (g/mol):

n = Nav X d/M

 Graphite (carbon): d = 2.3 g/cm3, M = 12 g/mol

n = 6 × 1023 atoms/mol × 2.3 g/cm3 / 12 g/mol

= 11.5 × 1022 atoms/cm3

 Diamond (carbon): d = 3.5 g/cm3, M = 12 g/mol

n = 6×1023 atoms/mol × 3.5 g/cm3 / 12 g/mol

= 17.5 × 1022 atoms/cm3

 Water (H2O) d = 1 g/cm3, M = 18 g/mol

n = 6×1023 molecules/mol × 1 g/cm3 / 18 g/mol 10

= 3.3 × 1022 molecules/cm3
2.1.10 Ions

 Atom can have electrical charges

 Atom can gain or lose electrons (# of protons never changes)
 If gain electrons – negatively charge
 If lose electrons – positively charge
 If no gain or no lose – electrically neutral atoms.

     
                           

H+ : a positively H2 : the H- : a negatively

charged hydrogen ion hydrogen charged hydrogen ion
atom 11
 2.1.11 Quantum Mechanics

 branch of physics this is used to describe atomic and sub-atomic

entities. Electron may occupy only discrete energy levels or states.
 electron are permitted to have only specific values of energy
 electron may change energy, but it must make a quantum jump either
to an allowed higher energy (absorption of energy) or to a lower energy
(emission of energy).

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 Wave- Mechanical Model

 subdivision of quantum mechanics that considers electron to have both

wave- like and particle- like characteristics
 overcome the limitation of Bohr Model (because of its ability to explain
several phenomenon involving electrons)
 using this model, every electron is characterized by four parameters called
Quantum Numbers
 with this model, an electron is no longer treated as a particle moving in a
discrete orbital; rather, position is considered to be the probability of an
electron’s being at various locations around the nucleus

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QUANTUM NUMBERS
 A set of four numbers, the values of which are used to label
possible electron states. Three of the quantum numbers are
integers, which also specify the size, shape and spatial
orientation of an electron’s probability density; the fourth
number designates spin orientation

 The quantum numbers arise from solution of Schrodinger’s

equation

 Pauli Exclusion Principle: only one electron can have a given

set of the four quantum numbers
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Four parameters of Quantum Numbers (QN):

 n -principal quantum numbers

 l -secondary QN @ orbital angular
momentum
 ml - third QN @ magnetic quantum number
 ms - fourth QN @ spin quantum number

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 PRINCIPLE QUANTUM
NUMBER (N)
 Integer value used to specify the shell the electron
belongs to
 n=1,2,3..7
 Sometimes designated by letters K,L,M,N,O…
 K= 1,L= 2, M= 3, N= 4, O= 5…
 Related to distance of an electron from nucleus, or its
position

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 L shell
(n = 2)

M shell
(n = 3)

N shell
K shell (n = 4)
(n = 1)
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SUBSIDIARY QUANTUM
NUMBER
(L)

 Specifies the subshell the electron occupies

 l = n -1
 Referred to as states s,p,d,f
l=0 , s state , so 2 electron
l=1 , p state , so 6 electron
l=2 , d state , so 10 electron
l=3 , f state , so 14 electron
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 Related to the shape of the electron subshell
Principal QN No. electron in
the energy state
(n)

Hydrogen 1s 1

Energy state (l)

Subsidiary QN

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MAGNETIC QUANTUM NUMBER
(ML )
 Determine the number of energy levels for each
subshell
 Whole number from –l to l
 ml = 2l +1
 If l=2, then ranges from -2 ,-1,0,+1,+2
 s=1 state exist
 p=3 state exist
 d=5 state exist
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 f=7 state exist
SPIN QUANTUM NUMBER
(MS)

 Related to spin moment

 Must be oriented up and down
 +1/2,-1/2

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 22
Schematic representation of the relative energies of the
electron for various shells and subshell
TABLE 1.1 MAXIMUM NO OF ELECTRON FOR EACH PRINCIPAL
ATOMIC SHELL

Shell number, n Max. number of Max. number of

(principal electrons in each electrons in
quantum shell (2n2) orbitals
number)
1 2(12)=2 s2
2 2(22)=8 s 2 p6
3 2(32)=18 s2p6 d10
4 2(42)=32 s2p6 d10f14
5 2(52)=50 s2p6 d10f14…..
6 2(62)=72 s2p6 …..
23
7 2(72)=98 s2…..
24
 2.1.12 Electron Configurations

Pauli Exclusion Principle:

 To determine the manner in which these states are filled with
electrons
 Another quantum mechanical concept
 Stipulates that each electron state can hold no more than two
electrons (must opposite spin)
 s, p , d , f subshells = 2, 6, 10, 14 electrons respectively
 E.g H= 1s1, He= 1s2, Na= 1s22s22p63s1
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 Valence electron:
- are those that occupy the outermost filled shell (important
because they participate in the bonding between atoms to form
atomic and molecular aggregates
- indicate the physical & chemical properties of solids

 Stable electron configurations:

- the states within the outermost or valence electron shell are
completely filled

e.g. neon 1s22s22p6

argon 1s22s22p63s23p6

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27
ELECTRON CONFIGURATION OF
ELEMENT…

 How atom arrangement are built up?

Hydrogen 1s1
Helium 1s2
Lithium 1s22s1

Electron generally want to occupy the lowest energy state

available.
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 S=2e
p=6e

d = 10 e

f = 14 e

 The order of which electron fill up the orbitals is as follow:

1s22s22p63s23p6 4s23d10 4p65s24d105p66s24f145d106p67s25f146d107p6 29

TRY NOW…
 Give the electron configurations of the following
elements.

Na= 11 Mn= 25
Mg= 12 Cu= 29
Al= 13 Br= 35
Si= 14 O= 8
Cr= 24

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ANSWER…
Na = 11 = 1s22s22p63s1
Mg = 12 = 1s22s22p63s2
Al = 13 = 1s22s22p63s23p1
Si = 14 = 1s22s22p63s23p2
Mn = 25 = 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d5
Cu = 29 = 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d9
Br = 35 = 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p5
O = 8 = 1s22s22p4
Cr = 24 = 1s22s22p63s23p63d54s1
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Fig 1.3 Electron Configuration of Elements

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Fig 1.4 Arrangement of electron in orbitals
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2.1.13
1
PERIODIC TABLE 8

2 3 4 5 6 7

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 Elements in the same column (Elemental Group) share similar
properties. Group number indicates the number of electrons
available for bonding.

 0: Inert gases (He, Ne, Ar…)have filled subshells: chem.

Inactive

 IA: Alkali metals (Li, Na, K...)have one electron in outermost

occupied s subshell- eager to give up electron- chem. Active

 VIIA: Halogens (F, Br, Cl…) missing one electron in

outermost occupied p shell- want to gain electron- chem. active

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 • Columns: Similar Valence Structure

inert gases
give up1e

accept 2e
accept 1e
give up 2e
give up 3e
Metal

Nonmetal
H He
Li Be Intermediate Ne
O F
Na Mg S Cl Ar
K Ca Sc Se Br Kr
Rb Sr Y Te I Xe
Cs Ba Po At Rn
Fr Ra

Electropositive elements: Electronegative elements:

- Readily give up electrons - Readily acquire @ accept electrons
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to become + ions @ cations to become – ions @ anions
- are metallic in nature - are nonmetallic in nature
 ELECTRONEGATIVITY
 Is defined as the degree to which an atom attracts electrons to itself
 Is measured on a scale from 0 to 4.1 and each is assigned a value on this scale
 Large values: tendency to acquire electrons.

Smaller electronegativity Larger electronegativity

-most electropositive - are fluorine, oxygen and nitrogen, 37
-are alkali metals electronegativities of 4.1, 3.5 and 3.1
-electronegativities ranging from 0.9 respectively
for cesium, rubidium,potassium to 1.0 for sodium
and lithium
 Electronegativity - a measure of how willing atoms are to
accept electrons

 Subshells with one electron – low electronegativity

 Subshells with one missing electron -high electronegativity

 Electronegativity increases from left to right

 Metals are electropositive – they can give up their few valence

electrons to become positively charged ions

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39
 This is typical potential well for two interacting atoms.

 The repulsion between atoms, when they are brought close to

each other, is related to the Pauli principle:

when the electronic clouds surrounding the atoms starts to

overlap, the energy of the system increases abruptly.

 The origin of the attractive part, dominating at large distances,

depends on the particular type of bonding.

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Three different types of primary @ chemical bond are:
ionic, covalent, metallic

Involves the valence electrons and depends on the

electron structures of the constituent atoms

Each bonding arises from the tendency of the atoms to

assume stable electron structures, by completely filling the
outermost electron shell (like those of the inert gases)

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 Ionic: strong Coulomb interaction among negative atoms
(have an extra electron each) and positive atoms (lost an
electron). Example - Na+Cl-
 Covalent: electrons are shared between the molecules,
to saturate the valency. Example - H2
 Metallic: the atoms are ionized, loosing some electrons
from the valence band. Those electrons form a electron
sea, which binds the charged nuclei in place

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 2.3.1 IONIC BONDING
 Definition: A coulombic interatomic bond that exist between two adjacent and
oppositely charged ions or by transferring of electron of metallic element to the
nonmetallic element
(coulombic force: a force between charged particles such as ions; the force is
attractive when the particles are of opposite charge)

 Form between metallic elements and nonmetallic elements

Atoms of metallic element easily give up their valence electrons to the

nonmetallic atoms

Na (metal) Cl (nonmetal)
unstable unstable
electron

Na (cation) + - Cl (anion)
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stable Coulombic stable
Attraction
 Occurs between + and – ions

 Large difference in electronegativity required

 Strong, nondirectional bond

 Example: NaCl, LiF, Na20

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 EXAMPLES: IONIC BONDING
• Predominant bonding in Ceramics
NaCl
MgO
H He
2.1 CaF 2 -
Li Be O F Ne
1.0 1.5 Cs Cl 3.5 4.0 -
Na Mg Cl Ar
0.9 1.2 3.0 -
K Ca Ti Cr Fe Ni Zn As Br Kr
0.8 1.0 1.5 1.6 1.8 1.8 1.8 2.0 2.8 -
Rb Sr I Xe
0.8 1.0 2.5 -
Cs Ba At Rn
0.7 0.9 2.2 -
Fr Ra
0.7 0.9

Give up electrons Acquire electrons

45
Schematic representation of ionic bonding in sodium
chloride (NaCl). 46
 2.3.2 COVALENT BONDING

Definition:
a primary interatomic bond that is formed by the sharing of electrons
between neighboring atoms

Directional
bond (it is between specific atoms and may exist only in the direction
between 1 atom and another that participates in the electron sharing)

E.g: many of nonmetallic elemental molecules (H2, Cl2, F2) and molecules
containing dissimilar atoms (CH4, H2O, HNO3,HF)

The number of covalent bonds that is possible for a particular atom is

determined by the number of valence electron.

8 - N’ ,N’= valence electron

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e.g. N’ = 4 (Carbon)

* 8 – 4 = 4 (meaning that 1 C atom can bond or share to 4 electrons)

 E.g. Methane (CH4)

C: has 4 valence e,
needs 4 more
H: has 1 valence e,
needs 1 more
Electronegativities
are comparable.

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E.G. CL2

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Covalent Bond
 The closer the atoms are together, the smaller the difference in
electronegativity, the greater the degree of covalency

 Can be very strong, very hard, very high melting temperature (e.g.
diamond; Tm= >3550° C) & can be very weak (e.g. Bismuth; 270° C)

 Typical of this bond = polymeric materials (because the basic molecular

structure being a long chain of carbon atoms that are covalently bonded
together with two of their available 4 bonds per atom.

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 EXAMPLES: COVALENT BONDING

H2 O

column IVA
H2 F2
C(diamond)
H He
2.1
Si C - Cl 2
Li Be C O F Ne
1.0 1.5 2.5 2.0 4.0 -
Na Mg Si Cl Ar
0.9 1.2 1.8 3.0 -
K Ca Ti Cr Fe Ni Zn Ga Ge As Br Kr
0.8 1.0 1.5 1.6 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.8 -
Rb Sr Sn I Xe
0.8 1.0 1.8 2.5 -
Cs Ba Pb At Rn
0.7 0.9 1.8 2.2 -
Fr Ra
0.7 0.9 GaAs

• Molecules with nonmetals

• Molecules with metals and nonmetals
51
• Elemental solids (RHS of Periodic Table)
• Compound solids (about column IVA)
 2.3.3 METALLIC BONDING

Found in metals and their alloys

Metallic materials have one, two or three valence electrons

These valence electrons are not bound to any particular atom in the solid but,
they may be thought of as belonging to the metal as a whole or forming a
“sea of electrons” or an “electron cloud” that act as a “glue” to hold the iron
cores together

The remaining non valence electrons and atomic nuclei form what are called
ion cores, which posses a net positive charge equal in magnitude to the total
valence electron charge per atom

Metals are good conductors of both electricity and heat, as a consequence of

their free electrons
52
 Ion cores
Eg: Mg, Cu

+ + +

+ + +
Sea of valence
electrons

+ + +
53

Schematic representation of metallic bonding

 Secondary or physical forces and energies are weaker than the
primary ones
 Exist in all atoms and molecules
 Arises from atomic or molecular dipoles
(electric dipole= exists whenever there is some separation of positive and
negative portions of an atom or molecule)
 The bonding results from the coulombic attraction between the positive end
of one dipole and the negative region of an adjacent one is as below:
Schematic illustration of van der Waals bonding between two dipoles

+ - + -

54

Atomic or molecular dipoles

 Induced dipole bonds (fluctuating)
 A dipole may be created or induced in an atom or molecule that is normally
electrically symmetric (the overall spatial distribution of the electrons is
symmetric with respect to the positively charged nucleus)(e.g. H2, Cl2)

Atomic nucleus
Electron cloud

Polar molecule- induced dipole bonds+(Permanent - Dipole)

 Exist in some molecules by virtue of an asymmetrical arrangement of
positively and negatively charged regions; such molecules are termed polar
molecules (e.g. HCl,H2O)

H Cl

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+ -
SUMMARY

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…SUMMARY

Metals: Metallic
Ceramics: Ionic / Covalent
Polymers: Covalent and Secondary
Semiconductors: Covalent or Covalent / Ionic

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58
MAKE SURE YOU UNDERSTAND
LANGUAGE & CONCEPTS:

 Atomic mass unit  Hydrogen bond

(amu)  Ionic bond
 Atomic number  Metallic bond
 Atomic weight  Mole
 Bonding energy  Molecule
 Coulombic force  Periodic table
 Covalent bond  Polar molecule
 Dipole (electric)  Primary bonding
 Electron state  Secondary bonding
 Electronegative  Van der Waals bond
 Electropositive  Valence electron

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