Aircraft 101 Part 1

Aircraft 101
© 2017 MHI Canada Aerospace, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Proprietary and Confidential
General objectives
This training intends to:

Provide employees with some basic knowledge on the general aerospace principles
Raise the awareness of employees on the consequences of their actions for the quality of
aircraft during the manufacturing process
Introduction & history
objective
Purpose of this chapter:

Become familiar with key milestones in aviation development
Become familiar with aircrafts
Definition
Aviation
All technologies and activities related to flight
All conveyances making flight possible (airplanes, gliders, helicopters, etc.)
Commercial aviation
Primarily, operation of regular airlines and charter flights
General aviation
All other forms of flight

Training
Scientific
Aviation:
Sport aviation
Private aviation
Business aviation
Agricultural aviation (e.g. crop-dusting or aerial crop spraying)
military aviation
All types of aircraft used by the armed forces
Origins of aviation
Icarus
Leonardo da Vinci
In 1783
Montgolfier Brothers
Pilatre de Rozier and Marquis d’Arlandes
Non-powered flight
Sir George Cayley, British Inventor

1796 built a helicopter
1799 made a diagram of the aerodynamic forces acting on a wing profile
1809 built a glider that flies without a passenger
1843 designed the first model of a convertiplane
1849 built a glider that may have been tested with a passenger on board
History of aviation
Clement Ader came up with the French word “avion” that is derived from the
latin word “avis” meaning “bird”
That is the name he gave to the machine he built in 1897 as a successor of
Eole
The latter achieved a short flight of about 50 meters, propelled by its engine
In 1897 Ader attempted to fly from Satory to Vincennes in the Avion III,
propelled by 2 steam engines and only managed to glide for 300 meteres
This failure was also the end of Aders ventures
The airplane was donated to the Conservatoire des arts et métiers in 1903
and is still on exhibit at the museum
The wright brothers
Brothers Wilbur and Orville Wright

On December 17, 1903, 1st powered flight in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina
Using a twin-propelled airplane
The biplane required a highly skilled pilot
4 flights in one day
The wright brothers
Bicycle sellers
They had studied airflow principles
They had even built their own wind tunnel
They improved the efficiency of propellers
The wright brothers
They have designed a 12 HP engine weighing 80 kg

The engine drove 2 propellers coupled by gears and chains of the same type as used on
bicycles
They understood that an airplane must roll to perform a turn
Airplanes do not turn like boats do
Louis Bleriot
Crosses the English Channel in 37 min. on board of a monoplane

July 25, 1909
CHARLES LINDBERGH
On May 20-21, 1927: he crossed the

Atlantic Ocean solo and non-stop for
the first time
He flew from North America to France
in 33 h 30 min
He travelled a distance of 5809 km on
board of “Spirit of Saint Louis”
start of Canadian aviation
Aerial Experiment Association

Alexander Graham Bell
J.A.D. McCurdy
First Flight of Silver Dart
February 23, 1903
Baddeck, Nova Scotia
Axes
The center of the plane is its center of gravity and all the axes intersect the CG
Ailerons and roll
The ailerons control and counteract roll

The actuates the ailerons using the yoke or control stick
Rudder and yaw
The rudder counteracts yaw

The pilot actuates the rudder by means of pedals
Elevator and pitch
The elevator controls and counteracts pitch

The pilot actuates it using the same flight control as for the ailerons, namely the yoke or
control stick, by moving it aft or forward
Mechanical concepts
Purpose
Basic concepts of mechanical physics

Understand the fundamentals pertaining to aerodynamics and mechanics of flight
mass
Quantity of matter contained in a particular cost

A unit of mass is :
SI = kilogram (kg)
Imperial system = slug
Inertia
A body at rest tends to stay at rest

A body in motion tends to reamin in motion
These statements summarize Newton’s First Law
Examples:
A stable object stays stable
A moving object tends to keep on moving
Speed and acceleration
Speed = distance covered as a function of time

Speed unit in :
SI = m/s
Imperial system = pi/s
Acceleration = variation of speed as a function of time
Unit of acceleration in:
SI = m/s²
The acceleration we experience on a daily basis is gravity
Gravitational acceleration is indicated by the letter “g”
It corresponds to 9.81 m/s² or 33 pi/s²
Forces
Product of an object’s mass multiplied by the acceleration applied to that object (ma)
This explanation of force = Newtons 2nd Law
It is characterized by a magnitude and a direction
Unit of force in:
SI = Newton (N)
Imperial System = pound – force (lbf)
Action – reaction
Every action = reaction

Applied force:
Reaction by an inertial force or acceleration
Newtons 3rd Law:
For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction
Action – reaction
Review
The earth attracts people and objects
If an object is on a table, there is always a force attracting it to the center of the earth
The object does not move because the table prevents it to do that
The table exerts force in the opposite direction
The forces are balanced: no movement is possible
Action – reaction
Newtons 3rd Law : “for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction”
Example :
If you are on a boat and jump on the wharf, the boat will move away from the dock
Fluids
A fluid is a state of material:

Continuous
Pliable
Non-rigid
Able to flow
A fluid, when subject to forces, can change its form dramatically
If the forces are weak, variations in form are slower
Fluids
Compared to solids, fluids have a totally different status

Particles:
Are solidly linked in case of solids
Are free to move in case of fluids
Example:
Liquids
Gases
Particular physical properties, such as viscosity among others
Air is a fluid
Viscosity
The concept of viscosity refers to the resistance that opposes any fluid when it is
displaced
Pressure
Force by unit of surface

Unit of pressure in:
SI = pascal (Pa)
Imperial system = lb/po² or pound per square inch (psi)
Atmospheric pressure is measured by barometers
101.325 kPa or 29.92 in of mercury or 14.7 lb/po²
Varies depending on the climate
High pressure > 102 kPa
Low pressure < 99 kPa
The atmosphere
Atmospheric pressure
One of airs properties

Pressure decreases as a function of altitude
It decreases rapidly
At 18,000 feet it is already half of the air pressure measured at sea level
Atmospheric pressure
Decreases with altitude

It is -56°C at approx. 36,000 feet
It then remains stable up to about 85,000 feet
It then begins to increase
Most airplanes fly at an altitude of:
30,000 to 45,000 feet
Airplane temperature ranges between -45 and -56°C
Flying in adverse weather
Various types of adverse weather conditions exist in the

atmosphere
Airplanes may occasionally find themselves having to fly through:
Icing
Rain
Heat
Wind
Wind shear
Squalls
Cold
Icing
Certainly an adverse condition

Rime icing and clear icing
Icing may have a catastrophic effect:
Increases the weight of the airplane
Wing profile changes
Results in a reduction of performance, such as:
Higher stall speed
Reduced climb rate, etc.
Icing
How is ice removed from the leading edge?

The de-icing system is turned on (hot air, electric or pneumatic)
rain
Adverse effect on engines, rather than on the aircraft aerodynamic

performance
During combustion, water doesn’t burn and it replaces the air
When frozen, water has an increased volume
Water may break the parts of the engine compressor
wind
Wind direction indicates where it comes from

Problems during take off or landing:
Head wind: improved performances
Tail wind: decreases performances
Winds not aligned to the runway direction, are referred to as
crosswinds
Piloting techniques are more difficult to apply
The runways are built by taking into account the prevailing wind
direction
Wind shear and squalls
Squalls: rapid movement of air masses

An airplane in the vicinity of a squall:
Sudden movements
Damage may occur
Near the ground:
Squalls may cause vertical movements that are hazardous to
flight
Wind shear:
Difference in speed between two adjacent air masses
Cold temperature
Undesirable effects:
Properties of materials change depending on the temperature
Metals and plastics may break more easily
Lubricants may no longer function satisfactorily
Fuel may freeze
Heat
Affects engine performance

May reduce engine performance by 10%
Compensated by water and methanol injection
Aerodynamics
Static & dynamic pressures
Static pressure
Measured by a barometer
Dynamic pressure
Air is in motion
Proportional to half the density (p) and the square of the speed
(v²)
Pressure distribution
The flow is faster on the upper surface than beneath the lower
surface
Increased pressure under the wing
Decreased pressure on top of the wing
Resultant aerodynamic force
By calculating pressures on the wings surface, it is possible to

quantify an aerodynamic force on the wing
drag
When driving, what happens if we put our hand out of the

window?
It is pushed back and we have to apply some force to keep it in
place
The force applied will help our hand to pass through the air
We have to beat the drag
There are two types of drag:
1. Form drag
2. Friction drag
Form drag
Airplane:
It has to be reduced to a minimum on all parts in contact with
the air
Give them a shape that will generate the smoothest airflow
possible around these airplane parts
This is a major concern for the airplane designers
Results show that enormous gains can be obtained by giving
engine struts, wing struts and all exposed parts a streamlined
shape
Friction drag
Friction drag is the resistance to flow produced by a thin, flat plate

positioned parallel to the relative wind
The air is slowed down, sometimes even stopped, in the immediate
vicinity of the surface
The dust on the wings of an airplane taking off will still be there at landing
Layers of air close to the surface decelerate layers further away due to
friction between them, or in other words due to viscosity
Airflow gradually increases in speed as one moves away from the surface
The air density required to achieve the speed of free-flowing air may only
be a few millimetres above the wing
Boundary layer
It is the layer between the surface and the boundary of unslowed

air
Friction drag is of considerable importance; therefore it has to
be reduced to a minimum, especially at high speed
Aerospace engineers dedicated a lot of time to research and
study to boundary layer
Laminar & turbulent flow
Laminar flow:
Air flows do not cross each other and overlap without mixing
Turbulent flow:
If the surface is smooth, friction drag is less than
Air flows form a vortex on a rough surface, even if it remains greater than
the vaule in laminar flow.
Smooth surface
Helps to create a laminar flow
Air viscosity and flow speed also play an important role
Surface roughness
Equally important even when the boundary layer is turbulent
Factors generating a turbulent layer
Rivet head too high or too low

Sealant
Roughness (scratches)
Incorrectly installed equipment
Other
Definition of a wing
Structure that generates sufficient lift to permit the airplane to fly
Wing airfoil
The most forward part (A): leading edge

The most rearward point (F): trailing edge
The top curvature (E): upper surface
The bottom curvature (I): lower surface
E
A F
RESULTANT AERODYNAMIC FORCE
The flow is faster on the upper surface than beneath the lower
surface
Pressure
Increased pressure under the wing
Decreased pressure on top of the wing
Induced drag
Induced drag results from the fact that a wing does not have an
infinite aspect ratio wingspan²/surface area
For a wing with any aspect ratio, the upper surface is subjected to
low pressure, while the bottom surface is subjected to high
pressure
Induced drag
The various positive and negative forces tend to compensate

each other, which results in a vortex that affects the wingtips
This vortex combined with the primary airflow perpendicular to the
wingspan at the leading edge causes disturbances in the
airstream
Characteristics:
Induced drag is a function, among other things, of the air below
the wing being able to move toward the upper surface
Induced drag
On the wing’s upper surface,

the air streams converge
toward the plane of symmetry,
while on the wing’s bottom
surface, they diverge toward
the wing tips
The place where they meet
spawns a layer of vortices
called free vortices all along
the trailing edge
Vortices
These free vortices curl around themselves in a single direction

and then create the wingtip vortices
These wingtip vortices are extremely dangerous for airplanes
behind, since they can be strong enough to flip over a light
airplane
Vortices
Wingtip vortices:
Serving no purpose (they are even dangerous)
Used energy is lost
“Induced drag”
Preventing wingtip vortices:
Reduced induced drag
Wing’s end plate:
Artificial increase of span
Increased drag
Winglets
Reduced induced drag

Use the vortices to create forward lift
Useful for a wing that has a low aspect ratio wingspan²/surface
area
stalls
Definition:
Moment when the wing can no longer generate sufficient lift to
keep the plane in level flight
Airflow on the airfoil’s upper surface:
Becomes turbulent
Ultimately no longer adheres to the foil
Occurrence:
At a high angle of attack
When the speed is too low
Lift-increasing devices
Used to increase an airfoils lift:

Flaps
Slots
High lift devices
Simple flap
Increases lift by increasing the camber

The flaps chord is approx. 30% of the wings chord
Split flap
Some lift increases as created by simple flaps

More drag and less of a pitching moment
Slotted flap
Controls the boundary layer by reducing the risk of separation

from the wings surface
Increases lift and reduces drag
Fowler flap
Controls the boundary layer and increases the wings surface and
camber
Increases lift and reduces drag
Increase lift, leading edge
Slat
Controls the boundary layer

Increases the wings surface
area and camber

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Aircraft 101

This training intends to:

Purpose of this chapter:

Primarily, operation of regular airlines and charter flights

All other forms of flight

All types of aircraft used by the armed forces

Sir George Cayley, British Inventor

Brothers Wilbur and Orville Wright

They have designed a 12 HP engine weighing 80 kg

Crosses the English Channel in 37 min. on board of a monoplane

On May 20-21, 1927: he crossed the

Aerial Experiment Association

The ailerons control and counteract roll

The rudder counteracts yaw

The elevator controls and counteracts pitch

Basic concepts of mechanical physics

Quantity of matter contained in a particular cost

A body at rest tends to stay at rest

Speed = distance covered as a function of time

Every action = reaction

A fluid is a state of material:

Compared to solids, fluids have a totally different status

Force by unit of surface

One of airs properties

Decreases with altitude

Various types of adverse weather conditions exist in the

Certainly an adverse condition

How is ice removed from the leading edge?

Adverse effect on engines, rather than on the aircraft aerodynamic

Wind direction indicates where it comes from

Squalls: rapid movement of air masses

Affects engine performance

By calculating pressures on the wings surface, it is possible to

When driving, what happens if we put our hand out of the

Friction drag is the resistance to flow produced by a thin, flat plate

It is the layer between the surface and the boundary of unslowed

Rivet head too high or too low

Structure that generates sufficient lift to permit the airplane to fly

The most forward part (A): leading edge

The various positive and negative forces tend to compensate

On the wing’s upper surface,

These free vortices curl around themselves in a single direction

Reduced induced drag

Used to increase an airfoils lift:

Increases lift by increasing the camber

Some lift increases as created by simple flaps

Controls the boundary layer by reducing the risk of separation

Controls the boundary layer

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