Chemistry of Carbohydrates

Dr.N.Ananthi
Professor & HOD
Department of Biochemistry
• Definition:
Carbohydrates are Polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or
compounds that yield them on hydrolysis.

Classified into 4 major groups

1. MONOSACCHARIDES: They are the simplest carbohydrates.
They contain one sugar. They cannot be broken down
further. They are classified
I. Depending on the functional group:
a. Aldoses – Glucose.
b. Ketoses – Fructose.
II. Depending on the number of carbons: Trioses, Tetroses,
Pentoses, Hexoses.
2. DISACCHARIDES: They are made up of two
monosaccharide units linked by glycosydic
bonds.
Ex: Maltose, Lactose, Sucrose.

3. OLIGOSACCHARIDES: Short chain of

monosaccharide units (3-10 units)
Ex: Blood group antigens.
4. POLYSACCARIDES: They are made up of more
than 10 monosaccharides. They are further
classified into:
a. Homopolysaccharides: They are made up of
same monosaccharide units.
Ex: Cellulose, Glycogen, Starch.
b. Heteropolysaccharides: They are made up of
more than one type of monosaccharide.
Ex: Heparin, Chondroitin sulphate.
Classification of carbohydrates
 Disaccharide
• When two monosaccharides are combined together by glycosidic linkage,
a disaccharide is formed. The important disaccharides are:
1. Sucrose 2. Maltose and Isomaltose 3. Lactose.
1. Sucrose: It is known as cane sugar. It is present in sugarcane and various
fruits. Sucrose contains glucose and fructose. Sucrose is not a reducing
sugar; This is because the linkage involves first carbon of glucose and
second carbon of fructose, and free reducing groups are not available.
2. Lactose: It is the sugar present in milk. It is a reducing disaccharide. On
hydrolysis lactose yields glucose and galactose. Beta glycosidic linkage is
present in lactose.
3. Maltose: It contains two glucose units joined by alpha-1,4 linkage.
Isomaltose is also a reducing sugar. It contains 2 glucose units combined
by alpha-1, 6 linkage.
 Mutarotation
• Mutarotation is the change in the optical
rotation activity of a solution. E.g., Glucose
solution.
• It occurs because of the change in the
equilibrium between two α & β anomers.
• Cyclic sugars show mutarotation as α and β
anomeric forms interconvert over a period of
time in solutions.
• When glucose solution is freshly prepared, most of the
molecules are in α-form. On keeping the solution for
18 hours, "mutarotation" takes place, and 63%
molecules are changed to β-configuration. The
glucose-oxidase enzyme preferentially acts on the β-
form. Hence, freshly prepared solutions will give lower
values.

• Thus alpha D-glucose has specific rotation of +112 and

beta-D-glucose has +19. Both undergo mutarotation
and at equilibrium one-third molecules are alpha type
and 2/3rd are beta variety to get the specific rotation
of +52.5.
 Epimers
• When two monosaccharides differ from one
another, only in configuration with regard to a
single carbon atom, other than the reference
carbon atom, they are called Epimers.
• For example, glucose and mannose are an
epimers which differ only with respect to C2.
Similarly, galactose is the C4epimer of glucose