4.

Literature review,
citations and references

Surveying
 What is Literature?
 Books, articles, etc., about a particular subject
 Printed materials (Such as books, leaflets, and brochures)
that provide information about something
 Scientific literature: The body of writings on a particular
subject

2
 What is a Literature Review?
 A literature review is a comprehensive and up-to-date
overview of published information on a subject area
 It is an account of what has been published on a topic by
accredited scholars and researchers

 It is NOT just…
- a list of all the material published or
- a summarising of one piece of literature after another
 It is a critical look at the existing research that is significant
to the work that you are carrying out.
 What is a Literature Review?
 Doing a literature review requires you to demonstrate skills
in 02 areas;

- Information seeking: the ability to scan the literature

efficiently, using manual or computerized methods, to
identify a set of useful articles and books

i.e. Literature Survey

- Critical review: the ability to apply principles of

analysis to identified literature

4
 Why Do a Literature Review?
 To provide background information about a research topic
– Helps to carry on from where others have already
reached
 To demonstrate familiarity with the topic/ problem
 To establish the importance of the topic
 To narrow down a research topic
 To provide the intellectual context for your work
– This will allow you to position your work relative to
other work
 A Good Literature Review Will…
 Be organised around and related directly to the topic
 Give an overview of the subject area under study
– What is and what is not known about the topic?
– Identify how the subject has developed over time?
– Identify any gaps in knowledge
– Identify any areas of disagreement/ agreement
 Provide a critical assessment
 Identify questions that need further research
 Increase your depth and breadth of knowledge on your
subject area
 Ensure the ‘researchability’ of your topic before the
commencement of ‘proper’ research
Some questions to ask during your literature search/ review…

What are the key sources or

who are the key authors? What are the key theories/
hypothesis/ concepts/ ideas?
What are the major issues/
debates about the topic?

Literature Search and What are the main

Review questions/ problems
What are the political
addressed so far?
standpoints?

What are the origins/ What are the appropriate

definitions for the topic? or useful methodologies/
How is knowledge on the methods?
topic structured/
organised?
 What is Critical Assessment?
 Identifying the gaps/weaknesses in the literature
 Raising questions
 Evaluating and showing relationships between different
material
– Comparing and contrasting the views of different
authors
 Showing the key themes that emerge

8
 Stages of Literature Review

1) Plan your review

2) Carry out a search for relevant materials
3) Evaluate materials
4) Analyse the findings
5) Draft and revise your review
 1. Planning your literature review
 What type of literature review are you going to write?
 Begin by asking, - what is the focus, type, scope, and
discipline of my review?
Focus:
– What is the specific problem or question that your literature review will
address?
Type:
– What type of literature review are you conducting? – Is it focused on
theory, methodology, policy, qualitative/quantitative studies?
Scope:
– What is the scope of material that you will include? What types of sources
will you be using?
Discipline:
– What academic discipline(s) will be included (e.g. construction
management, law, sociology, etc)
 2. Searching for Literature
i. Identify key words
ii. Carry out a search for relevant materials (library
catalogues/ online databases)
– Journals (print and electronic)
– Books
– Newspaper articles
– Government policies/reports/statistical information
– Acts, legislations, case laws
– Commercial reports and statistical information
– Thesis/ dissertations, etc.
iii. See if they are available to you (in your library or do you
have online access)?
iv. Skim the initial group of articles to see whether they
make a useful contribution – duplicate those that are
most central to topic
 Types of Literature
Primary Literature
 Presents or comments upon the results of research activities.
Often includes analyses of data collected in the field or the
laboratory.
 Original materials that have not been filtered through
interpretation or evaluation by a second party
 E.g. primary research articles in peer-reviewed journals,
dissertations and theses, technical reports, conference
proceedings
Secondary Literature
 The secondary literature interprets and analyses the primary
literature. May have quotes or graphics of primary sources in
them
 E.g. Textbooks, magazine articles, criticisms, commentaries,
encyclopedias 12
 3. Evaluating Your Literature Sources
 Initial appraisal;
a. Author (credentials, institutional affiliation, background, etc)
b. Date of publication (is the article current or out-of-date)?
c. Edition or revision
- Is it a first edition or not? – further editions indicate
revisions/updates to reflect changes in knowledge, include
any omissions, reflect user needs.
- Many printings/editions may also indicate that the work is a
standard or popular source in the area and is reliable
- Same for web pages – are there any revision dates
indicated?
d. Publisher
- Is it a reliable publisher? – may not always guarantee
quality
- University press – likely to be a scholarly publication
e. Title of journal
 Using Original Sources
 Whenever possible use the original article that
presented the result
 Original source is more reliable
 The original meaning may be distorted in citations
due to different interpretations of authors
 Evaluating Your Literature Sources Contd.
• Examining the body of the source;
a. Intended audience (is this source too elementary, too
technical, too advanced or just right for your needs)?
b. Objective reasoning within the article;
- Is the information provided fact, opinion or propaganda?
- Is the author’s point of view objective/impartial and the
language free from emotional words and bias?
- Is the information valid and well-researched or questionable
and unsupported by evidence?
c. Coverage
d. Writing style
Making use of academic reading techniques

Scanning
Skimming
Detailed Reading
 Scanning
 Moving your eyes quickly to locate words/ phrases that
are useful or relevant for you
– E.g. looking up the name in a phone book

 You can scan parts of texts to determine their usefulness

for your purpose
– Introduction/ preface
– First and/ or last paragraph of chapters
– Concluding chapters/ sections
 Skimming
 Helps to get the general idea of a text
 Reading quickly to get the main points skipping over the
detail
 You can use this to;
– Preview a passage before detail reading
– Decide if a text is useful for you
 Detailed Reading
 Careful reading of the text
– Who is the author?
– What seems to be the author's main purpose? To offer
advice, make practical suggestions, solve a specific
problem? To critique? To establish the truth?
– What is the research methodology adopted?
– Who is the intended audience?
– What is the main point or conclusion or question?
– How does the author support his/her position? Are
alternative evidence or explanations considered?
– How does this study fit into the context of the problem or
topic? Does this study cite other studies you’ve seen cited
elsewhere? Is it cited by other studies? If so, how?
– What does this study add to your project?
 4. Analysing the Findings
 A literature review is not about just listing out previous
studies
 It should contain a balance of summary and analysis
 The analysis should be done at both;
– Individual study level
– Looking at the field or topic area as a whole
 Includes 4 main tasks

Tasks in a literature review

Summary Synthesis Comparison Critique

Analysing the Findings - Summary and Synthesis
• Summary and synthesis – Looking at the topic area as a
whole
– What do you know about the immediate areas of this research field?
– What are the key arguments, key characters, key concepts, key
figures?
– What are the existing debates/theories?
– What kinds of methodologies are generally employed by researchers
in this area?
• Sample language used for summary and synthesis:
– Norman (2013) has demonstrated…
– Smith (1998) states that...
– A seminal work in the area carried out by Johns and Graves (2010)
has compared...
– Additional work by Stan and Li (2000) suggests that...
Analysing the Findings – Comparison and Critique
• Allows you to see the strengths/ weaknesses of your research
area
• May be difficult to do until you have read widely in your subject
• Can address the following questions;
– How do the different studies relate to one another? What is new,
different, or controversial about the various studies?
– What views need to be further tested/researched?
– What evidence is lacking, inconclusive, contradicting, or too limited?
– What research designs or methods seem unsatisfactory?
• Sample language used for comparison;
‘Some authors contend that mandatory arbitration is mainly an
alternative to settlement, rather than an alternative to trial [for
example, Kakalik et al. (1996) ] whereas others view it as a
substitute for litigation [for example, Stipanowich, 2001)
 Analysing the Findings Contd.
 At the end of the analysis you should be able to;
– See any common trends
– Identify debates/conversations surrounding the topic
– Show the different perspectives that has been used to
approach the problem
– Identify a seminal study or studies
– Demonstrate the chronological development of the problem/
topic
 Your literature should demonstrate what the scholars in your
field know and what they do not know.
 5. Drafting the Literature Review
 Structure and organise the literature review around the
selected topic

Introduction

The main body

Conclusions/summary
Organising Your Literature Review - Introduction
 Writing the introduction:
– Identify the general topic or issue – provide appropriate
context and establish the scope
– Provide some background
– Establish the reason (point of view) for reviewing the
literature
– the organisation/overview of the review
 Organising Your Literature Review - The Main
Body
 Make sure the different sections link together and tell a
coherent "story“
 Provide the reader with strong "umbrella" sentences at
beginnings of paragraphs, "signposts" throughout, and brief
"so what" summary sentences at intermediate points in the
review to aid in understanding comparisons and analyses
 Example

Occupational Health and Safety Management Systems (OHSMS) (Source:

Robson et al., 2007):
There is a body of research on the correlates of low injury rates in
organisations (e.g. Cohen, 1977; Reilly et al., 1995; Shannon et al.,
1996). These studies suggest which potential elements of an OHSMS
are important by identifying those that are correlated with low injury
rates.
As noted section1.1, other studies (Mearns et al., 2003; Simard and
Marchand, 1994) have developed researcher-defined measures of
OHSMSs and shown that a more developed OHSMS is correlated with a
lower injury rate.
While these studies are a valuable contributions to the literature, they
cannot tell us what the likely effect is of a particular type of OHSMS
intervention in a particular type of workplace. They are limited by their
cross-sectional design and the lack of an OHSMS intervention variable.
 Organising Your Literature Review - Conclusion
• Conclusions and summary;
– Summarise the main findings from your review
– Major agreements and disagreements in the literature
– General conclusions that can be drawn
– Answer the question, ‘so what?’
– Connect to current research project – what are the
implications to the research you are undertaking?
 Example 1 – Connecting to your research

The literature review clearly highlights that there

are past studies that tend towards identifying the
proximate causes of disputes and then studies that
attempt to identify root causes of disputes. There
are also studies which are tending towards a
diagnostic approach to dispute causes.
It is concluded that further study is needed to
establish significant claims so that management
attention may be focussed on attempts to control
the corresponding causes and reduce such claims.
 Traps to avoid in the literature review
 Try not to read everything
 Reading but not writing
 Not keeping reference information
 Incomplete referencing (paraphrases, summaries and direct
quotes)
 Referencing
Referencing is very important when:
 paraphrasing and summarising the ideas / words / works of
others
 quoting directly from a source.
 A Few Tips on Referencing
 Use appropriate in-text citation and complete references
using a recommended style (e.g. APA)
 Basic rule: If it’s not your own idea (and it’s not common
knowledge), use citations!
 In general, try to paraphrase or restate in your own words
 Use direct quotations sparingly – these could be used to
highlight terms or phrases that have specific relevance/
significance in your field, or when the language of the
quotation is particularly powerful
 When using quotations, introduce the quote and/or explain
its significance
 Keep accurate citation records of your sources as you read
and compile your notes
 Citing References in Text
 Author’s name used in sentence
– According to Frank (2002), the project manager has direct
influence over 34–47% of project success.
– Hwang and Tan (2010) note that higher costs are
associated with green materials and green construction
technologies

 Author’s name not part of sentence

– The project manager has direct influence over 34–47% of
project success (Frank, 2002).
– Higher costs are associated with green materials and
using green construction technologies (Hwang & Tan, 2010).
 Citing References in Text
 When there are 3, 4 or 5 authors

First time you do the citation..

– Frank, Prasad, Smith and Perera (2002) state that the
project manager has direct influence project success.
or
– The project manager has direct influence project success
(Frank, Prasad, Smith & Perera, 2002).

After that…
– Frank et al. (2002) state that the project manager has
direct influence project success
or
– The project manager has direct influence project success
(Frank et al., 2002).
 Citing References in Text
 When there are 6 or more authors - only use first author’s
name followed by ‘et al’

– Frank et al. (2002) state that the project manager has

direct influence project success
or
– The project manager has direct influence project success
(Frank et al., 2002).
 Citing References in Text
• When 2 or more authors have the same surname - give the
initials of the first author

– B. L. Frank and Frank (2002) state that the project

manager has direct influence project success
or
– The project manager has direct influence project success
(B. L. Frank & Frank, 2002).
 Citing References in Text
• When 2 or more references are given in same parenthesis -
order them alphabetically

– The project manager has direct influence project success

(Frank, 2002; Jones, 2012; Prasad, 1999).

If by same authors - arrange by year of publication

–The project manager has direct influence project success
(Jones, 2000, 2012).
 Citing References in Text
• Using quotations of less than 40 words - use quotation
marks around the quote and include page numbers

– Bartlett and Howard (2000) asserted that “quantity

surveyors seriously overestimate the capital costs of
energy efficient measures” (p. 324).

– It has been noted that “quantity surveyors seriously

overestimate the capital costs of energy efficient
measures” (Bartlett & Howard, 2000, p. 324).
 Citing References in Text
 Using quotations of more than 40 words - display as a
separate block of text, indented about a half inch from the
left without the quotation marks

– Du Plessis (2007) defines construction as;

The broad process/mechanism for the realisation of
human settlements and the creation of infrastructure that
supports development. This includes the extraction of raw
materials, the manufacturing of construction materials
and components, the construction project life cycle from
feasibility to deconstruction, and the management and
operation of the built environment (p.54).
 Citing References in Text
 Using quotations of more than 40 words - display as a
separate block of text, indented about a half inch from the
left without the quotation marks

– Construction has been defined as;

The broad process/mechanism for the realisation of
human settlements and the creation of infrastructure that
supports development. This includes the extraction of raw
materials, the manufacturing of construction materials
and components, the construction project life cycle from
feasibility to deconstruction, and the management and
operation of the built environment (Du Plessis, 2007,
p.54).
 Preparing Reference List
 For an entire book
– Potts, K. & Ankrah, N. (2013). Construction cost
management: Learning from case studies (2nd ed.). Oxon,
United Kingdom: Routledge.
– Elmasri, R., Navathe, S. B., Somayajulu, D. V. L. N., &
Gupta, S. K. (2006). Fundamentals of database systems.
Delhi, India: Dorling Kindersley.

– Central Bank of Sri Lanka. (2013). Economic and social

statistics of Sri Lanka. Colombo: Statistics Department,
Central Bank of Sri Lanka.
 Preparing Reference List
 For a journal article
– Dobson, D. W., Sourani, A., Sertyesilisik, B. & Tunstall, A.
(2013). Sustainable construction: Analysis of its costs and
benefits. Journal of Civil Engineering and Architecture,
1(2), 32-38. DOI:10.12691/ajcea-1-2-2.

 For a news paper article

– Sirimanne, B. (2010, September 05). Chinese and Indian
companies dominate Sri Lanka’s mega project business.
The Sunday Times, p. 33.
 Preparing Reference List
 For web pages
– Department of Agriculture. (2006). Crop
recommendations. Retrieved from
http://www.agridept.gov.lk/index.php/en/crop-reco
mmendations/808
 Different ways of citing...
1) Make information being referenced the main focus
- Can be used to refer to general concepts or ideas in the
field
- To report factual information.

E.g. The project manager has direct influence project

success (Frank, Prasad, Smith & Perera, 2002).

2) Make the author of the study being referenced the main focus
– Refer to studies more closely related to your own
– Can be used when reporting the findings of individual
studies
E.g Kumaraswamy (1997) has classified construction claims based
on their magnitude and frequency.
 Different ways of citing... Contd.
• Use of multiple authors
– especially when your assertion is particularly
important
– can be used to focus on a research area studied
by several authors
– refer to the authors as a group
E.g. Several authors (Burger, 1984; Rowe, 1989) have
characterised construction litigation as an expensive
process.
 6. Revising and Editing the Draft
Check the following;
 Introduction – does it achieve the main tasks of an
introduction? (Same for conclusion/summary as well)
 Does the literature review provide an assessment of the
field?
 Is it clearly organised under appropriate headings?
 Does the headings clearly convey the major ideas of each
section?
 Does the writing flow (between sentences, paragraphs and
sections)? Are the connections clear?
 Are there any spelling or grammatical mistakes?