Statistical Quality

Control

Lecture 1
Introduction to Quality
 The Meaning of Quality and
Quality Improvement

1 Dimensions of Quality

2 Quality Engineering Technology

1. Dimensions of Quality

• Performance • Aesthetics
• Reliability • Features
• Durability • Perceived Quality
• Serviceability • Conformance to
standards
1. Dimensions of Quality
1. Performance :Will the product do the intended job?

2. Reliability : How often does the product fail?

3. Durability :How long does the product last?

4. Serviceability :How easy is it to repair the product?

1. Dimensions of Quality
5. Aesthetics: What does the product look like?

6. Features : What does the product do?

7. Perceived Quality : What is the reputation of the

company or its product?

8. Conformance to Standards : Is the product made

exactly as the designer intended?
 Definitions of Quality

Quality means fitness for use.

It has two aspect

- Quality of design

- Quality of conformance
 Definitions of Quality

Quality means fitness for use

- Quality of design :All goods and services are produced in
various grades or levels of quality.

These variations in grades or levels of quality are intentional, and,

consequently, the appropriate technical term is quality of
design.
Types of materials
Specifications on the components
Reliability of the engines, and other accessories or equipment.
 Definitions of Quality

Quality means fitness for use

- Quality of conformance : is how the product will conform to the
specifications required by the design.

Quality of conformance is influenced by a number of factors:

• The choice of manufacturing processes,
• The training and supervision of the workforce,
• The types of process controls, tests, and inspection activities that are
employed,
• The extent to which these procedures are followed,and
• The motivation of the workforce to achieve quality.
 Definitions of Quality

Quality is inversely proportional to variability

 Definitions of Quality
Improvement
Quality Improvement

• Excessive variability in process performance often

results in waste.

• Quality improvement is the reduction of variability in

processes and products.

• Alternatively, quality improvement is also seen as

“waste reduction”.
 Sources of Variation

• Common and Assignable Causes

– Common or Random causes of variation, or
• Random causes that we cannot identify
• Unavoidable, e.g. slight differences in process variables
like diameter, weight, service time, temperature

– Assignable causes of variation

• Causes can be identified and eliminated: poor employee
training, worn tool, machine needing repair
 Process Variation
Total Process Common Assignable Cause
Variation = Cause Variation + Variation

 Variation is natural; inherent in the world

around us
 No two products or service experiences are
exactly the same
 With a fine enough gauge, all things can be
seen to differ
 Total Process Variation
Total Process Common Assignable Cause
Variation = Cause Variation + Variation

Variation is often due to differences in:

 People
 Machines
 Materials
 Methods
 Measurement
 Environment
 Common Cause Variation
Total Process Common Assignable Cause
Variation = Cause Variation + Variation

Common cause variation

 Naturally occurring and expected .
 The result of normal variation in materials,
tools, machines, operators, and the
environment.
 Special Cause Variation
Total Process Common Assignable Cause
Variation = Cause Variation + Variation

Special cause variation

 Abnormal or unexpected variation.
 Has an assignable cause.
 Variation beyond what is considered
inherent to the process .
1.2 Quality Engineering Terminology

Quality Characteristics

• Physical - length, weight, voltage, viscosity

• Sensory - taste, appearance, color

• Time Orientation - reliability, durability,

serviceability
1.2 Quality Engineering Terminology

Quality engineering is the set of operational,

managerial, and engineering activities that a company
uses to ensure that the quality characteristics of a
product are at the nominal or required levels, and that
the variability around these desired levels is
minimum.
1.2 Quality Engineering Terminology

Two types of data

• Attributes Data - discrete data, Characteristics that

are measured as either "acceptable" or "not
acceptable", thus have only discrete, binary, or integer
values.

• Variables Data - continuous measurements such as

length, weight. Characteristics that are measured on a
continuous scale.
1.2 Quality Engineering Terminology

Specifications
Quality characteristics being measured are often compared to standards or
specifications.

The specifications are the desired measurements for the quality characteristics
of the components and subassemblies that make up the product.

Besides, it is the desired values for the quality characteristics in the final
product.

Specifications are usually the result of the engineering design process for the
product.
• The desired value for that quality characteristic is called the
nominal or target value for that characteristic.

• These target values are usually bounded by a range of that

we believe will be sufficiently close to the target so as to not
impact the function or performance.

• The largest allowable value for a quality characteristic is

called the upper specification limit (USL), and the smallest
allowable value for a quality characteristic is called the lower
specification limit (LSL).
1.2 Quality Engineering Terminology

• When a component or product does not meet

specifications, they are considered to be
nonconforming.

• A nonconforming product is considered defective if it has

one or more defects.

• Defects are nonconformities that may seriously affect the

safe or effective use of the product.
 ENGINEERING DESIGN PROCESS

• Traditionally, design engineers have arrived at a product design configuration

through the use of engineering science principles, which often results in the
designer specifying the target values for the critical design parameters.

• Then prototype construction and testing follow. This testing is often done in a
very unstructured manner, without the use of statistically based experimental
design procedures, and without much interaction with or knowledge of the
manufacturing processes that must produce the component parts and final
product.

• However, through this general procedure, the specification limits are usually
determined by the design engineer. Then the final product is released to
manufacturing. We refer to this as the over-the-wall approach to design.
Over-the-wall Approach
 ENGINEERING DESIGN PROCESS

• Concurrent Engineering, also known as simultaneous

engineering, is a method of designing and developing products, in which
the different stages run simultaneously, rather than consecutively. It
decreases product development time and also the time to market,
leading to improved productivity and reduced costs.

• The recent emphasis on concurrent engineering has stressed a team

approach to design, with specialists in manufacturing, quality
engineering, and other disciplines working together with the product
designer at the earliest stages of the product design process.
ENGINEERING DESIGN PROCESS
 A Brief History of Quality
Control and Improvement
• Competition from foreign industries (Japan) increases during the
1970s and 1980s.
• Statistical methods for quality improvement use increases in the
United States during the 1980s
• Total Quality Management (TQM) emerges during 1970s and into
the 1980s as an important management tool to implement
statistical methods.
• Malcolm Baldridge National Quality Award is established in 1988.
• ISO 9000 certification activities increase in U.S. industry in the
1990s.
• Motorola’s Six-Sigma initiative begins in the 1990s.
1-3. Statistical Methods for Quality
Control and Improvement
• Statistical quality control (SQC) is the term used to
describe the set of statistical tools used by quality
professionals. Statistical quality control can be
divided into three broad categories:

• Three major areas:

1.Descriptive statistics
2.Statistical process control (SPC)
3.Acceptance sampling
1- Descriptive Statistics

• Descriptive statistics are used to describe

quality characteristics and relationships.

• Included are statistics such as the mean,

standard deviation, the range, and a measure
of the distribution of data.
2- Statistical Process Control

• Statistical process control (SPC) involves

– inspecting a random sample of the output from a
process and
– deciding whether the process is producing products
with characteristics that fall within a predetermined
range.

• SPC answers the question of whether the process is

functioning properly or not.
3- Acceptance sampling

• Acceptance sampling is the process of randomly

inspecting a sample of goods and deciding whether
to accept the entire lot based on the results.

• Acceptance sampling determines whether a batch of

goods should be accepted or rejected.
 1-4. Other Aspects of Quality Control
and Improvement

Total Quality Management (TQM)

• TQM is a managerial framework to accomplish
quality improvement.
• Other names and related approaches:
– Company-Wide Quality Control (CWQC)
– Total Quality Assurance (TQA)
– Six-Sigma
 Descriptive Statistics
• Descriptive statistics can be helpful in describing certain
characteristics of a product and a process.

• This chapter is concerned with two numerical ways of

describing quantitative variables, namely,

• Measures of Location, and

• Measures of dispersion.
 Descriptive Statistics

• Measures of location are often referred to as averages.

• An average is a measure of location that shows the central

value of the data. Averages appear daily on TV, on
various websites, in the newspaper, and in other journals.
 
• If we consider only measures of location in a set of data, or
if we compare several sets of data using central values, we
may draw an erroneous conclusion. In addition to
measures of location, we should consider the dispersion
often called the variation or the spread in the data.
• Mean (average)
• A statistic that measures the central tendency of a set of
data.
 The Median
• When data containing one or two very large or very small
values, the arithmetic mean may not be representative.

• The center for such data can be better described by a

measure of location called the median.
• Mean = 4.57

• Median = 3

• Mode = 1
• Small values of the range and standard deviation mean
that the observations are closely clustered around the
mean.

• Large values of the range and standard deviation mean

that the observations are spread out around the mean.
 Dispersion
• A measure of location, such as the mean or the median, only
describes the center of the data. It is valuable from that
standpoint, but it does not tell us anything about the spread of
the data.
• The Range

• which is the difference between the largest and

smallest observations.

• Standard Deviation
 • Distribution of Data

A third descriptive statistic used to

measure quality characteristics is the
shape of the distribution of the observed
data. When a distribution is symmetric,
there are the same number of
observations below and above the mean.

This is what we commonly find when

only normal variation is present in the
data. When a disproportionate number of
observations are either above or below
the mean, we say that the data has a
skewed distribution.
End of Lecture
Statistical Quality
Control

Lecture 2-3
 WHAT IS STATISTICAL QUALITY
CONTROL?
• Talking about solving quality problems is not enough. We need
specific tools that can help us make the right quality decisions.

• These tools come from the area of statistics and are used to
help identify quality problems in the production process as well
as in the product itself.

• Statistical quality control is the subject of this chapter.

 WHAT IS STATISTICAL QUALITY
CONTROL?
1. Statistical quality control (SQC) is the term used
to describe the set of statistical tools used by quality
professionals.

• Statistical quality control can be divided into three

broad categories:

1. Descriptive statistics
2. Statistical process control (SPC)
3. Acceptance sampling
1. Descriptive statistics are used to describe quality
characteristics and relationships.

Included are statistics such as the mean, standard deviation,

the range, and a measure of the distribution of data.
• 2. Statistical process control (SPC) involves
inspecting a random sample of the output from a
process and deciding whether the process is
producing products with characteristics that fall within
a predetermined range.

• SPC answers the question of whether the process is

functioning properly or not.
• 3. Acceptance sampling is the process of randomly
inspecting a sample of goods and deciding whether
to accept the entire lot based on the results.

• Acceptance sampling determines whether a batch of

goods should be accepted or rejected.
• The tools in each of these categories provide different types of
information for use in analyzing quality.

• Descriptive statistics are used to describe certain quality

characteristics, such as the central tendency and variability of observed
data. Although descriptions of certain characteristics are helpful, they are
not enough to help us evaluate whether there is a problem with quality.

• Acceptance sampling can help us do this. Acceptance sampling helps us

decide whether desirable quality has been achieved for a batch of
products, and whether to accept or reject the items produced.

• Although this information is helpful in making the quality acceptance

decision after the product has been produced, it does not help us
identify and catch a quality problem during the production process. For
this we need tools in the statistical process control (SPC) category.
• All three of these statistical quality control categories are helpful in
measuring and evaluating the quality of products or services.

• However, statistical process control (SPC) tools are used most

frequently because they identify quality problems during the
production process.

• The quality control tools we will be learning about do not only

measure the value of a quality characteristic. They also help us
identify a change or variation in some quality characteristic of
the product or process.

• We will first see what types of variation we can observe when

measuring quality. Then we will be able to identify specific tools
used for measuring this variation.
 SOURCES OF VARIATION:
Common and Assignable Causes

• Variation in the production process leads to quality

defects and lack of product consistency.

• Therefore, Intel has implemented a program it calls

“copy-exactly” at all its manufacturing facilities.
 Common causes of variation

• Common causes of variation are based on random

causes that we cannot identify.

• These types of variation are unavoidable and are due

to slight differences in processing.

• An important task in quality control is to find out the

range of natural random variation in a process.
 Assignable Causes of Variation.

• The second type of variation that can be observed

involves variations where the causes can be precisely
identified and eliminated. These are called assignable
causes of variation.

• Examples of this type of variation are poor quality in raw

materials, an employee who needs more training, or a
machine in need of repair. In each of these examples
the problem can be identified and corrected.
 Descriptive Statistics
• Descriptive statistics can be helpful in describing certain
characteristics of a product and a process.

• This chapter is concerned with two numerical ways of

describing quantitative variables, namely,

• Measures of Location, and

• Measures of dispersion.
 Descriptive Statistics

• Measures of location are often referred to as averages.

• An average is a measure of location that shows the central

value of the data. Averages appear daily on TV, on
various websites, in the newspaper, and in other journals.
 
• If we consider only measures of location in a set of data, or
if we compare several sets of data using central values, we
may draw an erroneous conclusion. In addition to
measures of location, we should consider the dispersion
often called the variation or the spread in the data.
• Mean (average)
• A statistic that measures the central tendency of a set of
data.
 The Median
• When data containing one or two very large or very small
values, the arithmetic mean may not be representative.

• The center for such data can be better described by a

measure of location called the median.
• Mean = 4.57

• Median = 3

• Mode = 1
• Small values of the range and standard deviation mean
that the observations are closely clustered around the
mean.

• Large values of the range and standard deviation mean

that the observations are spread out around the mean.
 Dispersion
• A measure of location, such as the mean or the median, only
describes the center of the data. It is valuable from that
standpoint, but it does not tell us anything about the spread of
the data.
• The Range

• which is the difference between the largest and

smallest observations.

• Standard Deviation
 • Distribution of Data

A third descriptive statistic used to

measure quality characteristics is the
shape of the distribution of the observed
data. When a distribution is symmetric,
there are the same number of
observations below and above the mean.

This is what we commonly find when

only normal variation is present in the
data. When a disproportionate number of
observations are either above or below
the mean, we say that the data has a
skewed distribution.
End of Lecture
2- Statistical Process Control

Statistical Process
Control (SPC)
• Control charts are used
for process monitoring
and variability
reduction.
3- Acceptance sampling

• Acceptance sampling is the inspection and

classification of a sample of the product selected at
random from a larger batch or lot and the ultimate
decision about disposition of the lot.

• Two types:
1. Outgoing inspection - follows production
2. Incoming inspection - before use in production
1-3. Statistical Methods for Quality
Control and Improvement

Design of Experiments

• Experimental design is an approach to systematically

varying the controllable input factors in the process
and determine the effect these factors have on the
output responses.

• Crucial for variability reduction.

Statistical Quality
Control

Lecture 3

STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL

METHODS
 WHAT IS STATISTICAL QUALITY
CONTROL?
1. Statistical quality control (SQC) is the term used
to describe the set of statistical tools used by quality
professionals.

• Statistical quality control can be divided into three

broad categories:

1. Descriptive statistics
2. Statistical process control (SPC)
3. Acceptance sampling
 STATISTICAL PROCESS
CONTROL METHODS
• Control Charts
• As we have learned so far, there are common and assignable
causes of variation in the production of every product.

• Using statistical process control we want to determine the

amount of variation that is common or normal.

• Then we monitor the production process to make sure

production stays within this normal range. That is, we want to
make sure the process is in a state of control.

• The most commonly used tool for monitoring the production

process is a control chart.
 Developing Control Charts

• A control chart (also called process chart or quality control

chart) is a graph that shows whether a sample of data falls
within the common or normal range of variation.

• A control chart has upper and lower control limits that

separate common from assignable causes of variation.

• The common range of variation is defined by the use of

control chart limits. We say that a process is out of control
when a plot of data reveals that one or more samples fall
outside the control limits.
Quality characteristic

• Q
Control Chart
 Upper Limit and Lower Limit

• Q
 Type I error
• Observations that fall outside the set range represent
assignable causes of variation. However, there is a small
probability that a value that falls outside the limits is still
due to normal variation.

• This is called Type I error, with the error being the chance
of concluding that there are assignable causes of
variation when only normal variation exists.

• Another name for this is alpha risk (), where alpha refers
to the sum of the probabilities in both tails of the
distribution that falls outside the confidence limits.
 Upper Limit and Lower Limit

• Q

The chance of this happening is given by the percentage or probability represented

by the shaded areas. For limits of 3 standard deviations from the mean, the
probability of a Type I error is .26% (100%- 99.74%), whereas for limits of 2
standard deviations it is 4.56% (100% - 95.44%).
 Types of Control Charts
• The different characteristics that can be measured by
control charts can be divided into two groups:

–variables
–attributes
 Types of Control Charts

• A control chart for variables is used to monitor characteristics that

can be measured and have a continuum of values, such as height,
weight, or volume.

• Examples: A soft drink bottling operation is an example of a variable

measure, since the amount of liquid in the bottles is measured and can take
on a number of different values.

• Other examples are the weight of a bag of sugar, the temperature of a baking
oven, or the diameter of plastic tubing.
 Types of Control Charts
• A control chart for attributes is used to monitor characteristics that
have discrete values and can be counted. Often they can be evaluated
with a simple yes or no decision. The monitoring of attributes usually
takes less time than that of variables because a variable needs to be
measured.

• An attribute requires only a single decision, such as :

– yes or no, good or bad, acceptable or unacceptable.

Examples:
- The apple is good or rotten, the meat is good or stale, the shoes have a
defect or do not have a defect, the light bulb works or it does not work
- Or counting the number of defects (e.g., the number of broken cookies in the
box, the number of dents in the car, the number of barnacles on the bottom
of a boat.
 CONTROL CHARTS FOR
VARIABLES
• Control charts for variables monitor characteristics that can be measured and have a
continuous scale, such as height, weight, volume, or width.

• When an item is inspected, the variable being monitored is measured and recorded.
For example, if we were producing candles, height might be an important variable.
We could take samples of candles and measure their heights.

• When observed values go outside the control limits, the process is assumed not to be
in control. Production is stopped, and employees attempt to identify the cause of the
problem and correct it. Next we look at how these charts are developed.

• Two of the most commonly used control charts for variables monitor both the central
tendency of the data (the mean) and the variability of the data (either the standard
deviation or the range). Note that each chart monitors a different type of information.
Mean (x-Bar) Charts
 Mean (x-Bar) Charts

• To construct a mean chart we first need to construct the

center line of the chart. To do this we take multiple
samples and compute their means.

• Usually these samples are small, with about four or five

observations. Each sample has its own mean, x .

• The center line of the chart is then computed as the mean

of all sample means, where K is the number of
samples:
• Q
Example
Factors for three-sigma control limits
of x and R-charts
• Q

R= (7.17/25) = 0.29
 Range (R) Charts

Note: x-bar charts measure shift in the central tendency of the process,
range charts monitor the dispersion or variability of the process.
• Q
Factors for three-sigma control limits
of x and R-charts
• Q
Using Mean and Range Charts Together

You can see that mean and range charts are used to monitor
different variables. The mean or x-bar chart measures the
central tendency of the process, whereas the range chart
measures the dispersion or variance of the process.

Since both variables are important, it makes sense to monitor

a process using both mean and range charts. It is possible
to have a shift in the mean of the product but not a change
in the dispersion.
End of Lecture
Statistical Quality
Control

Lecture 4
Review
 WHAT IS STATISTICAL QUALITY
CONTROL?
1. Statistical quality control (SQC) is the term used
to describe the set of statistical tools used by quality
professionals.

• Statistical quality control can be divided into three

broad categories:
1. Descriptive statistics
2. Statistical process control (SPC)
3. Acceptance sampling
 Sources of Variation
• Variation exists in all processes.
• Variation can be categorized as either:
– Common or Random causes of variation, or
• Random causes that we cannot identify
• Unavoidable, e.g. slight differences in process variables
like diameter, weight, service time, temperature
– Assignable causes of variation
• Causes can be identified and eliminated: poor employee
training, worn tool, machine needing repair

© Wiley 2010 122

 Descriptive Statistics
• Descriptive Statistics include:
n
– The Mean- measure of
central tendency
x i 1
i
– The Range- difference x
between largest/smallest
observations in a set of data n
– Standard Deviation
 x 
n
2
measures the amount of data X
dispersion around mean i
i 1
– Distribution of Data shape σ
• Normal or bell shaped or n 1
• Skewed

© Wiley 2010 123

 Distribution of Data
• Normal distributions • Skewed distribution

© Wiley 2010 124

 SPC Methods-Developing
Control Charts
Control Charts (aka process or QC charts) show sample data plotted on
a graph with CL, UCL, and LCL
Control chart for variables are used to monitor characteristics that can
be measured, e.g. length, weight, diameter, time
Control charts for attributes are used to monitor characteristics that
have discrete values and can be counted, e.g. % defective, # of flaws in
a shirt, etc.

© Wiley 2010 125

 Setting Control Limits
• Percentage of values • Control limits balance
under normal curve risks like Type I error

© Wiley 2010 126

 Control Charts for Variables
• Use x-bar charts to monitor the changes in the
mean of a process (central tendencies)

• Use R-bar charts to monitor the dispersion or

variability of the process

– System can show acceptable central tendencies but

unacceptable variability ,or
– System can show acceptable variability but
unacceptable central tendencies
127
 Control Charts for Variables
• Use x-bar and R-bar
charts together
• Used to monitor
different variables
• X-bar & R-bar Charts
reveal different
problems
• Is statistical control on
one chart, out of control
on the other chart? OK?
© Wiley 2010 128
New Lecture
 Control Charts for Attributes
• Control charts for attributes are used to measure quality
characteristics that are counted rather than measured.

• Attributes are discrete in nature and entail simple yes-

or-no decisions.

• For example, this could be:

– The number of nonfunctioning light bulbs,
– The proportion of broken eggs in a carton,
– The number of rotten apples,
– The number of scratches on a tile, or
– The number of complaints issued
 Control Charts for Attributes
P-charts
• P-charts are used to measure the proportion of items in a
sample that are defective.

• Examples are:
– The proportion of broken cookies in a batch and
– The proportion of cars produced with a misaligned fender.

• P-charts are appropriate when both the number of

defectives measured and the size of the total sample can
be counted. A proportion can then be computed and used
as the statistic of measurement.
 P-Chart Example
A production manager for a tire company has inspected the number
of defective tires in five random samples with 20 tires in each
sample. The table below shows the number of defective tires in
each sample of 20 tires. Calculate the control limits.
Solution:
Sample Number Number of Proportion
of Tires in Defective
Defective each
# Defectives 9
Tires Sample CL  p    .09
Total Inspected 100
1 3 20 .15
2 2 20 .10 p(1  p ) (.09)(.91)
σp    0.64
n 20
3 1 20 .05
UCLp  p  z σ   .09  3(.064)  .282
4 2 20 .10
LCLp  p  z σ   .09  3(.064)  .102  0
5 2 20 .05
Total 9 100 .09
133
P- Control Chart

© Wiley 2010 134

 Control Charts for Attributes
C-charts
• C-charts count the actual number of defects.

• For example,
– we can count the number of complaints from customers in a month,
– the number of bacteria on a petri dish,or
– the number of barnacles on the bottom of a boat.

• However, we cannot compute the proportion of complaints

from customers, the proportion of bacteria on a petri dish,
or the proportion of barnacles on the bottom of a boat.
 C-Chart Example
The number of weekly customer complaints are monitored in a large
hotel using a c-chart. Develop three sigma control limits using the
data table below.

Week Number of
Complaints Solution:
1 3 # complaints 22
2 2 CL    2.2
# of samples 10
3 3
4 1 UCLc  c  z c  2.2  3 2.2  6.65
5 3
6 3 LCLc  c  z c  2.2  3 2.2  2.25  0
7 2
8 1
9 3
10 1 137
Total 22
C- Control Chart

138
 Important Points

• Statistical quality control (SQC) techniques

– Descriptive statistics tools such as the mean, range, and standard deviation. These tools are used
to describe quality characteristics and relationships.

– Another category of SQC techniques consists of statistical process control (SPC) methods that are
used to monitor changes in the production process.

• Common and assignable causes of variation.

– Common causes of variation are based on random causes that cannot be identified. A certain
amount of common or normal variation occurs in every process due to differences in materials,
workers, machines, and other factors.

– Assignable causes of variation, on the other hand, are variations that can be identified and
eliminated.
• An important part of statistical process control (SPC) is
monitoring the production process to make sure that
the only variations in the process are those due to
common or normal causes. Under these conditions we
say that a production process is in a state of control.

• You should also understand the different types of quality

control charts that are used to monitor the production
process: x-bar charts, R-range charts, p-charts, and c-
charts.
 Notice and Comment

Simply setting up control charts to monitor whether a process is in control

does not guarantee process capability. To produce an acceptable product,
the process must be capable and in control before production begins.
 PROCESS CAPABILITY
• A critical aspect of statistical quality control is evaluating the ability of a
production process to meet or exceed preset specifications. This is called
process capability.

• To understand exactly what this means, let’s look more closely at the
term specification.

• Product specifications, often called tolerances, are preset ranges of

acceptable quality characteristics, such as product dimensions. For a
product to be considered acceptable, its characteristics must fall within
this preset range. Otherwise, the product is not acceptable. Product
specifications, or tolerance limits, are usually established by design
engineers or product design specialists.
 Process Capability
Product Specifications
– Preset product or service dimensions, tolerances: bottle fill might be 16 oz. ±.2 oz.
(15.8oz.-16.2oz.)
– Based on how product is to be used or what the customer expects
Process Capability – Cp and Cpk
– Assessing capability involves evaluating process variability relative to preset
product or service specifications
– Cp assumes that the process is centered in the specification range

specification width USL  LSL

Cp  
process width 6σ
– Cpk helps to address a possible lack of centering of the process

 USL  μ μ  LSL 
Cpk  min ,  144
 3σ 3σ 
• The process produces 99.74
percent (three sigma) of the
product with volumes
between 15.8 and 16.2
ounces.

• One can see that the process

variability closely matches
the preset specifications.
Almost all the output falls
within the preset specification
range.
• the process produces 99.74 percent
(three sigma) of the product with
volumes between 15.7 and 16.3
ounces.

• The process variability is outside the

preset specifications. A large
percentage of the product will fall
outside the specified limits.

• This means that the process is not

capable of producing the product
within the preset specifications.
• The production process
produces 99.74 percent (three
sigma) of the product with
volumes between 15.9 and
16.1 ounces.

• In this case the process

variability is within
specifications and the process
exceeds the minimum
capability.
Relationship between Process
Variability and Specification
Width
• Three possible ranges for Cp

– Cp = 1, as in Fig. (a), process

variability just meets
specifications

– Cp ≤ 1, as in Fig. (b), process not

capable of producing within
specifications

– Cp ≥ 1, as in Fig. (c), process

exceeds minimal specifications

• One shortcoming, Cp assumes that

the process is centered on the
specification range

• Cp=Cpk when process is centered

148
• A Cp value of 1 means that 99.74 percent of the products produced will fall
within the specification limits. This also means that .26 percent (100% 99.74%)
of the products will not be acceptable.

• Although this percentage sounds very small, when we think of it in terms of parts
per million (ppm) we can see that it can still result in a lot of defects.

• The number .26 percent corresponds to 2600 parts per million (ppm) defective
(0.0026 1,000,000). That number can seem very high if we think of it in terms of
2600 wrong prescriptions out of a million, or 2600 incorrect medical procedures
out of a million, or even 2600 malfunctioning aircraft out of a million.

• You can see that this number of defects is still high. The way to reduce the ppm
defective is to increase process capability.
 Computing the Cp Value at Cocoa Fizz: 3 bottling machines
are being evaluated for possible use at the Fizz plant. The
machines must be capable of meeting the design specification
of 15.8-16.2 oz. with at least a process capability index of 1.0
(Cp≥1)
The table below shows the information Solution:
gathered from production runs on each
machine. Are they all acceptable? – Machine A
USL  LSL .4
Cp   1.33
6σ 6(.05)
Machine σ USL-LSL 6σ
– Machine B
A .05 .4 .3
Cp=
B .1 .4 .6
– Machine C
C .2 .4 1.2

Cp=
© Wiley 2010 150
Computing the Cpk Value at Cocoa Fizz

• Design specifications call for a

target value of 16.0 ±0.2 OZ.
(USL = 16.2 & LSL = 15.8)
• Observed process output has now
shifted and has a µ of 15.9 and a
σ of 0.1 oz.
 16.2  15.9 15.9  15.8 
Cpk  min , 
 3(.1) 3(.1) 
.1
Cpk   .33
.3
• Cpk is less than 1, revealing that
the process is not capable
151
 ±6 Sigma versus ± 3 Sigma
• PPM Defective for ±3σ
• In 1980’s, Motorola coined “six- versus ±6σ quality
sigma” to describe their higher
quality efforts
Six-sigma quality standard is now a
benchmark in many industries
– Before design, marketing ensures
customer product characteristics
– Operations ensures that product
design characteristics can be met by
controlling materials and processes to
6σ levels
– Other functions like finance and
accounting use 6σ concepts to control
all of their processes

152
End of Lecture