INTRODUCTION

TO LOGIC
By
Iqra Aftab
 Contents

■ Introduction to Logic
■ Argument
■ Components of argument
■ Critical thinking
■ Tools of critical thinking
■ Recognizing argument
■ Truth and its types
■ Types of logic
■ Types of arguments
 Logic
■ Logic is a proper or rational way of thinking about something
■ It is the study/science of how to assess reasoning and
arguments.
■ How arguments must be developed for being correct and
reasonable
■ The science which studies the formal processes used in
thinking and reasoning
■ The science studying the principles of right/correct reasoning
 Argument

■ Logical process is incomplete without argument

“Argument refers to a set of statement/propositions given to

support an idea, theory, or action”
■ Some of the statements/propositions can serve as premises and
one of them serves as the conclusion
■ Evidence: To say that a statement A is evidence for another
statement B is to say that if A were true, this would provide
some reason to believe that B is true.
 Parts of Argument

■ An argument consists of two parts that are ‘premises’ and ‘conclusion’

■ Premises is a set of ‘reasons’ supporting the conclusion
■ Conclusion is the ‘result’ supported by the evidence.
■ Conclusion is a statement in an argument indicating what the
speaker/arguer is attempting to convince the listener/audience.
■ One or some of the statements/propositions in an argument can serve as
the premises and only one of them serves as the conclusion
 Critical thinking

■ Critical thinking refers to the process of using reasoning to recognize

what is true and what is false
■ Process of developing reliable and rational assessment of an argument or
idea.
■ For critical thinking, you need to be aware of logic and logical fallacies
(false reasoning manipulating and misleading us)
■ Ideal critical thinking involves open mindedness, readiness, and
eagerness to search and explore all ideas or point of views including
those unfamiliar or opposed to the own ideas/views of the thinker.
 Self-regulation

It is the unending process of ensuring that you have not

tumbled/fallen into any of the logical
misconceptions/fallacies.
 Tools of Critical thinking

■ Logic

■ Research

■ Experience
 Recognizing argument
1. Conclusion and Premises Indicators

■ Some arguments contain the words indicating the premises and

conclusion clearly
■ Certain words and phrases called "conclusion indicators" are helpful to
identify the arguments because they typically serve to introduce the
conclusion of an argument.
■ These words and phrases may help us recognize the presence of an
argument and identify its premises or conclusion.
 Recognizing argument Cont’d
Some conclusion indicators
■ Therefore
■ hence
■ thus
■ so
■ accordingly
■ in consequence
■ consequence
■ proves that
■ as a result
■ for this reason
 Recognizing argument Cont’d

Some premises indicators

■ Since
■ because
■ for
■ as
■ follows from
■ as shown by
 Recognizing argument Cont’d
2. Argument in context

■ It is not necessary for conclusion and premises indicators to appear in the

argument

■ The setting, arrangement, or the meaning of the passage/statement itself

can indicate the fact that an argument has been presented (Copi and
Cohen, 2005).
 Example of argument in context

“The single member-district system of elections seems to have a

number of serious drawbacks. It routinely denies representation
to large numbers of voters, produces legislatures that fail to
reflect accurately the views of public, discriminates against third
parties, and discourages voter turnout.”
 Recognizing argument Cont’d
3. Premises not in declarative form
■ To present the premises in the form of question

■ For example:
“What penalty can frighten a person who is not afraid of death itself?”
■ In this statement, the premises is missing but we can devise/assume
premises.
 Recognizing argument Cont’d
4. Unstated propositions

■ Arguments are sometimes unclear because one (or more) of their basic
propositions is not listed/stated but is expected to be understood
■ Such arguments are hard to recognize.
■ Illustration is helpful here
 Example of unstated propositions

■ In the controversy over the cloning of human beings, an angry critic

writes:
“Human cloning – like abortion ….... is intrinsically evil, and thus should
never be allowed”
■ The unstated premises in this argument is, ‘what is intrinsically evil
should never be allowed’.
 Truth

■ Truth refers to the fact of matter.

■ There are two types of truth that are:

 Objective Truth
 Subjective Truth
 Objective truth

■ It is true regardless of the viewer

■ Based on the definitions of the words used e.g. justice, love etc.
■ Many objective truths can be measured, but not all can be measured.
■ Objective truth is confirmed by science and universally accepted
■ An example of Objective truth is the statement, "Cats are quadrupeds."
 Subjective truth

■ Subjective truth varies from individual to individual relying upon the

individual's beliefs, opinions, feelings, and life experiences.
■ Such truth is not confirmed by science
■ Depends on one’s opinion or belief and it may be true or false
■ For example, "I love cats“ as the love for cats may vary person to person
 Types of Logic
■ Two types of logic are:
1. Formal Logic
– It can also be called deductive logic because the form of thinking allows one to deduce
its conclusion from its premises
– It deals almost completely with the form that arguments take
– All statements are considered arguments in formal logic.
2. Informal Logic
– Usually called inductive logic
– It includes testing our own ideas for internal bias
– Realizing how the environment we live in shapes our thoughts
– Examining our own reasoning process.
– Little or no supportive evidence
 Types of arguments

1. Deductive arguments
■ It provides all the support required to reach its conclusion
■ The truth of the premises definitely establishes the truth of the conclusion
■ A good deductive argument is considered as valid
■ If all its premises are true, the conclusion will also be true
■ Deductive arguments usually go with rules of mathematics and formal
logic.
 Types of arguments Cont’d

2. Inductive reasoning
■ It provides some, but not complete support to the conclusion
■ The truth of the premises provides only good reasons to believe that the
conclusion is probably true.
■ A good inductive argument is known a strong.
■ If all the premises are true, the conclusion is likely to be true as well.