1.

World English: refers to English as a shared language of communication used

between people whose main language are different. (lingua franca)
2. World Englishes: refers to different varieties of English in different regions of
the world.
There are approximately 75 territories where English is spoken either as:
First language

Institutionalised second language in fields such as government, law and education.

Unofficial language ( Foreign Language)

The spread of English is often presented by Braj Kachru’s model of World English which is the
most influtiential model.

Kachru’s Three Circles of English

  According to Leimgruber (2011), most adaptations in New Englishes in Southeast
Asia, concerns vocabulary, which shows substantial creativity among their users. As
a result, large-scale borrowing has happened. Bautista and Gonzalez (2006) suggest
that adaptation is the most obviously apparent in loanwords, which can be seen in the
following examples:
Philippine English Meaning
amok crazy
Singapore English Meaning
Abang elder brother; male cousin
Brunei English English Meaning

Malaysian English Loan Translation

red packet a sum of money folded inside red paper and given at
the Chinese New Year to unmarried younger relatives

Philippine English Loan Translation

open the light/radio turn on the light/radio
 Another important feature of Southeast Asian English lexis is changes in the meaning of
words.

Singapore English British English

“Stay” means long-term residence “Stay” means short-term residence

Brunei English British English

“Confident” has only negative “Confident” almost has positive meaning.

connontations – “Over- confident”

Malaysia English British English

“Proud” – haughty, pretty negative “proud” – positive meaning

 The grammar of standard Southeast Asian English is not different from that of other
versions of Standard English around the world. Whereas, the grammar of informal
varieties in the region differs from the standard form quite markedly so it is of more
central concern of extensive studies.

Singapore English grammar

• Features connected with the verb:
 1. past tense and present tense not morphologically marked

 2. copula dropped to describe states

 3. adverbials preferred to morphological marking of aspect

 4. progressive aspect marked with -ing, sometimes with still

 5. habitual aspect marked with always.

• Features connected with the noun:
6. non-count nouns treated as count
7. indefinite article dropped
8. relative clause with different word order and one.

• Features of sentence structure:

9. subject and sometimes object dropping (PRO-drop)
10. conjunction dropping
11. use of or not
12. use of tag question is it?.
 Concerning informal Malaysian English, the grammatical features have
been characterized (McArthur, 1998; Schneider, 2003/2004, cited in Bautista
and Gonzalez, 2006) as follows:

1. missing noun inflectional endings (mostly the plural -s and sometimes the
genitive -s)
2. missing sentence constituents (object, subject, auxiliary verb, copula,

preposition) giving the impression of phrasal “telegraphic” speech

3. variant complementation patterns following verbs
4. wrong concord in noun phrases
5. innovations in phrasal verbs
6. the use of reflexive pronouns to form emphatic pronouns
 McArthur (1998) and Bautista and Gonzalez (2006) have pointed out the
following characteristics of Philippine English grammar:

1. lack of subject-verb agreement, especially in the presence of an intervening

prepositional phrase or expression
2. faulty tense-aspect usage including unusual use of verb forms and tenses,

especially use of the past perfect tense for the simple past or present perfect, use
of the continuous tenses for habitual aspect
3. lack of tense harmony
4. modals would and could used for will and can
5. adverbial placed at the end of the clause, not between auxiliary and main

verb
 McArthur (1998) and Bautista and Gonzalez (2006) have pointed
out the following characteristics of Philippine English grammar:

6. non-idiomatic two- or three-word verbs;

7. variable article usage – missing article where an article is required; an

article where no article is required;

8. faulty noun subcategorization, including non-pluralization of count

nouns and pluralization of mass nouns;

9. lack of agreement between pronoun and antecedent;
10. one of the followed by singular noun;
11. Verbs that are generally transitive used intransitively.
 According to Bautista and Gonzalez (2006), analysis of discourse features of
Southeast Asian English is just starting.
 One important feature found in the recent studies is the wide use of particles.
Speakers tend to use a large number of clause-final discourse particles in their
communication. Leimgruber (2011) provides a list of such particles used in
Singapore English:
ah tentative marker, continuation marker
hah question marker
hor attempts to garner support for a proposition
lah mood marker, appeals for accommodation
leh marks a tentative suggestion/request
lor indicates obviousness or resignation
mah marks information as obvious
What/wot marks obviousness and contradiction
meh indicates scepticism
ya conveys (weak) emphasis and uncontroversiality
SOCIOLECTS:
Social stratification
- One of the chief forms of sociolinguistic identity derives from the way in which
people are organized into hierarchically ordered social groups, or classes (social
stratification).
-Classes, according to Crystal [ 20, p.38], are aggregates of people with similar
social or economic characteristics, which include income levels, types of housing,
educational levels, occupations, gender… In the industrialized societies of the West, this is
referred to as social stratification.
 SOCIOLECTS
Sociolects :
- One of the principal concerns of sociolinguistics over the past decades has
been describing language in use. The study of sociolinguistics variation is
essentially the description of the differential use of language by different social
groups social classes (class stratification studies).
- One of the findings is that social stratification gives rise linguistically to
social class dialects or sociolects (They are also called culturolects). Social class
differences correlate with sociolect differences.
- "A sociolect is a variety of language (a dialect) used by people belonging to
a particular social class" [82, p.262].
*Examples from sociolect research
- Social dialect research in many different countries has revealed a consistent
relationship between social class and language patterns.

- Some features are stable and their patterns of use seem to have correlated with
membership of particular social groups in predictable way for many years.

- Social dialect surveys have demonstrated that stable variables tend to divide
English- speaking communities sharply between the middle classes and the lower
working classes..
- Social dialect research in many different countries has revealed a consistent
relationship between social class and language patterns. The most obvious differences
in vocabulary are in many ways the least illuminating from a sociolinguistic point of
view, though they clearly capture the public imagination.

- In the 1950s in England, many pairs of words were identified which distinguished
the speech of upper- class English people (U speakers) from the rest (non-U
speakers).
Ex: U speakers used sitting room rather than lounge (non-U), and referred to
the lavatory rather than the (non-U) toilet.
Table.:U and non-U:
U Non-U
Bike,bicycle cycle
rich wealthy
vegetables greens
Writing-paper Note-paper
England Britain

These vocabulary differences were rather like those which distinguished Brahmin and non-
Brahmin caste speech. The nature of upper-class language has changed over 30 years later, but
the terms U and non-U are still well-known.

We can also find vocabulary differences between social classes in many types of sociolects such
as gender language, slang, prefessional language, ethnic language.
1. [iŋ] or [in] in reading aloud in Norwich(England).
-People of different social levels in Norwich (England) were asked to
read aloud a list of isolated words (A) and a piece of continuous text (B),
and their pronunciations when reading were compared with their formal
(C) and casual (D) speech.
Table.:[iŋ] or [in] in reading aloud in Norwich(England)

Class A B C D
MMC 0 0 3 28

LMC 0 10 15 42

UWC 5 15 74 87

MWC 23 44 88 95

LWC 29 66 98 100

The table shows whether the variable (-ng) in such words as walking was
pronounced as /ŋ/or /n/ .

The consistency with which speakers increase their use of /n/ as their language
becomes more spontaneous and casual reflected at every social level.
a-Cockney English

- Most British people can recognize Cogney, a London dialect of the

working class.
-Grammatical variations include them for those who and double
negative.
-Characteristics of a Cogney accent include dropping the sound /h/, e.g.
ouse for house, a feature shared by many urban accents, and
pronouncing th in words like think as /f/ not /.8/ A glottal stop /?/
replaces the /t/ in words like water, and the /ei/ in mate is replaced by
/ai/.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GnIE5hx9G34
b-Estuary English (EE) [18, p.75]
- In the 1990s a new dialect, Estuary English, spread through south-east
England. Estuary English was adopted by some people as a feature of a
new classless society. The spread of Estuary English provoked a strong
reaction among people who believed that the standard of English was
falling. Previously, there was a distinction between written English and
the more informal spoken language.
- This has been reduced in recent years, with many books and newspaper
using easier more informal English to reach a wider group of readers.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LY8FjXN14ew
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EajbRkaMvOE: Estuary

Pronunciation
c-Queen's and King's English [131]
- The British Royal Family would generally be considered to be speakers
of the standard English, RP, discussed in the Received Pronunciation
section. However, Wales, [1994, as cited in [131] differentiates between
the way the older «royals» speak and the changes that can be seen in the
younger members of the royal family. The younger members of the royal
family such as Prince Edward, Prince Andrew and the in-laws of the
family, the Duchess of York as well as the late Princess of Wales , all
speak an RP closer to «advanced» RP than to the conservative, more
traditional accent.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E6O63fkNDEY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eXvfqUe4EFQ
 The notion of the "Queen's" English or "King's" English, depending on
who is the ruler of the time, can be traced back to the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries where the idea that the monarch's usage of the
language should be a model in speech and writing.
 All labels that refer to the accent of English in England that is associated

with people from the upper- and upper-middle-classes.

 The British Royal Family would generally be considered to be speakers

of the standard English, RP, discussed in the Received Pronunciation

section.
Important social dialects in America
In addidion to General American English, there are the following important social dialects in
America:
a-African-American Vernacular English [142]
African-American Vernacular English, also known in North America as Black English, is the
set of English dialects primarily used by most African Americans and also some Black
Canadians.
African-American Vernacular English (AAVE), known less precisely as Black Vernacular,
Black English Vernacular (BEV), Black Vernacular English (BVE), or colloquially Ebonics
is the native variety of most working – and middle-class African Americans, particularly in
urban communities, with its own unique accent, grammar, and vocabulary features.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UZpCdI6ZKU4

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0rQ94hYGJZA&fbclid=IwAR3eT91B-pB2-
Lh42RSJT-JYFSGsKux2Crw6OUkU00O_ywhV_CmwYPXIvtQ
b-Pennsylvania Dutchified English [181]
- Pennsylvania Dutchified English is a dialect of English that has been
influenced by the Pennsylvania German language. It is largely spoken in
South Central Pennsylvania, both by people who are monolingual (in English)
and bilingual (in Pennsylvania German and English). The dialect has been
dying out, as non-Amish younger Pennsylvania Germans tend to speak
modern General American English.
- Very few non-Amish members of these people can speak the Pennsylvania
German language, although most know some words and phrases. The World
War II Generation was the last generation in which Pennsylvania Dutch was
widely spoken outside the Old Order Amish and Old Order Mennonite
communities.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UuEN1xJAYQg
d-New York Latino English [176]
An ethno-cultural dialect of the English language, primarily spoken by Hispanic
Americans on the East Coast of the United States, demonstrates considerable
influence from New York City English and African American Vernacular English,
with certain additional features borrowed from the Spanish language.

The academic literature has recently labelled the language variety New York Latino
English, referring to its city of nineteenth-century origin, or, more inclusively, East
Coast Latino English. In the 1970s scholarship, the variety was more narrowly
called (New York City) Puerto Rican English or Nuyorican English. The dialect
originated with the Puerto Ricans moving to New York City after World War I,
though particularly in the subsequent generations born in the
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fQim2iZdBUg
c-Chicano English [146]
Chicano English, or Mexican-American English, is a dialect of American
English spoken primarily by Mexican Americans (sometimes known as
Chicanos), particularly in the Southwestern United States, ranging from
Texas to California but also apparent in Chicago. Chicano English is
sometimes mistakenly conflated with Spanglish, which is a grammatically
simplified mixing of Spanish and English;

however, Chicano English is a fully formed and native dialect of English,

not a "learner English" or interlanguage. It is even the native dialect of
some speakers who know little to no Spanish.
fHs&fbclid=IwAR21dFvQdBKjI-

AEUef8yYM4SIEOnY9ZeMZE4Y1WUQIQpMXYdvYTVh9lmG8