Master: Applied Language Studies and Research in Higher Education

Theories of Learning
Presented by: Professor: Mohamed Sbaihi

Naima Lakhnoussi
Imane leqlaii
Outline:
Part one: Behaviorist theories
1. Classical conditioning (Pavlov)
2. Operant Conditioning (Skinner)
Part two: Cognitive theories
3. Information-processing theory (Atkinson-Shifrin)
Part three: Constructive theories
4. Cognitive constructivism(Piaget)
5. Social constructivism (Vygotsky)
What is learning?

Learning is a ‘‘relatively permanent influence on behaviour, knowledge,

and thinking skills that comes about through experience.’’ (Santrock,
2010)

Learning is ‘‘the process by which change in behaviour, knowledge,

skills, etc., comes about through practice, instruction, or experience.’’
(Richards & Schmidt, 1985)
 Learning
Deductive
‘‘… Learners are taught rules and
given specific information about
a language. They then apply
these rules when they use
the language.’’ (ibid)
Inductive
‘‘… Learners are left to discover
or induce rules from their
experience of using the
language.’’ (ibid)
“Not everything we know is learned. We inherit some capacities
—they are inborn, or innate, not learned.’’ (Santrock, 2010)
 Part one:
Behaviorist theories
Behavioural Theories:

‘‘John B.Watson is widely accepted as one of the earliest proponents of

behaviourism. He came to the view that psychology could only ever
become a true science if it became a process of detailed objective
observation and scientific measurement. This notion of observation and
measurement became central to the work of behaviourists. Any
consideration of mental process, which is by definition unobservable,
fell outside their range of interest.’’ (Pritchard, 2009)
• Behaviourism is ‘‘a theory of psychology which states that human and
animal behaviour can and should be studied only in terms of physical
processes, without reference to mind.’’ (Richards & Schmidt, 1985)
Classical conditioning: (Pavlov)

Classical conditioning is ‘‘a form of associative learning in which a

neutral stimulus becomes associated with a natural stimulus and
acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response.’’ (Pritchard, 2009)
Key concepts:

- Generalisation: occurs ‘‘when a response is produced to similar stimuli

with which it was not originally associated.’’ (Richards & Schmidt,
1985: )

- Discrimination: when a person learns to ‘‘distinguish between different

kinds of stimuli.’’ (ibid)

- Extinction: involves the weakening of the conditioned response (CR)

in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus (UCS).’’ (Santrock, 2010)
Operant conditioning: (Skinner)

Operant conditioning ‘‘involves reinforcing a behaviour by rewarding it.

It can also work in a negative way, when an undesirable behaviour can
be discouraged, by following it with punishment of some form.’’
(Pritchard, 2008)
 Reinforcement Punishment

Positive Negative Positive Negative

- Reinforcement: is ‘‘a consequence that increases the probability that a

behaviour will occur.’’ (Santrock, 2010)
- Positive Reinforcement: ‘‘increases the frequency of a response
because it is followed by a rewarding stimulus.’’ (ibid)
- Negative Reinforcement: ‘‘decreases the frequency of a response
because an unpleasant stimulus is removed.’’ (ibid)
- Punishment: ‘‘is a consequence that decreases the probability that a
behaviour will occur.’’ (ibid)
 Part 2:

Cognitive theories
 What is cognition?

• Cognition , according to Hamilton (1995) in the dictionary of

Cognitive Psychology is “ the understanding, acquisition and
processing knowledge, or more loosely thought processes”.
 Information precessing theory

• It is a “ cognitive approach concerned with how people view

their environment, how they put that information into memory,
and how they retrieve that information later on.” (Brown & Zhou,
2017).
The Atkinson – Shifrin Model (1968)
 How does Information Processing Model work?

• Sensory memory : “holds information from the world in its

original sensory form for only an instant. It is very passive,
limited , and it last about 3 - 5 seconds” ( Brown and Zhou,
2017).

• Short-term memory: “ refers to that part of the memory

where information that is received is stored for a short
period of time while it is being analysed and interpreted”
(Richards, 1985).
 How does Information Processing Model work?

• Long-term memory: “ is that part of memory where

information is stored more permanently. Information in long-
term memory might not be stored in the same form in which it
is received” ( Richards & Schmidt’s, 1985).
 Three major types of knowledge in LTM:

Long-term memory

Declarative Procedural Episodic

‘‘is sometimes called
‘knowing that’ and has been
labelled ‘explicit memory’.’’
(Santrock, 2010)
‘‘is sometimes called ‘‘ is sometimes called
‘knowing how’ and has anecdotal memory and
been described as implicit includes specific events in
memory.’’ (ibid) ones life.’’ (Brown & Zhou,
2017)
 Cognitive Processes

• Attention : “ the limitations about perceptional process and producing

answers” (Suthers, 1996).

• Perception: “the process of describing the stimuli received through

sensory organs” (ibid).

• Rehearsal : “ conscious repitition of information over time to increase

the amount of time it stays in memory”(Brown,& Zhou, 2017).
 Cognitive Processes

• Coding : “the transfer of information by means of relating the

information in long-term memory to the information in Short-term
memory” (When & Kauchak, 1992).

• Retrieval: “looking for, finding, and activating the information stored

in long term memory” ( Ashcraft,1989).
 Part 3:
Constructive theories
• Constructivism is “an approach to learning that holds people actively
construct or make their own knowledge and that reality is determined
by the experience of the learner”(Elliot, 2000).

• Influential Constructivists:
Jean Piaget (1896 - 1980)
Lev Vigotsky ( 1896 – 1980)
 Cognitive constructivism (Piaget, 1977)

“Learning is a process of adjustment to environmental influences.

Piaget describes two basic processes which form this process of
adjustment; these are Assimilation and accomodation”.
(Richards, 2009).
• Assimilation is “ the process whereby new knowledge is incorporated
into existing mental structure”. (Richard,2009).
• Accomodation is “ the process whereby mental structures have to be
altered in order to cope with the new experience Which has
contradicted the existing model” (ibid).
 Piaget’s four cognitive stages:

- Sensorimotor stage (birth to 2). The child’s cognitive system is

limited to motor reflexes at birth.
- Pre-operational stage (2 to 7). Children acquire representational
skills and especially language.
- Concrete operational stage (7 to 12). Children are able to understand
concrete problems and take multiple perspectives into account.
- Formal operational stage (12 to adult). Children are capable of
logical, theoretical, and abstract cognitive operations. (Richards &
Schmidt, 1985)
Social Constructivism: (Vygotsky)

The socio-constructivist theory originates in ‘Vygotsky’s work which

emphasized the causal relationship between social interaction and
cognitive development, including language learning.’’ (Richards &
Schmidt, 1985)

In the socio-constructivist theory, ‘‘emphasis is placed upon interaction

between the learner and others.’’ (Pritchard, 2009)
Zone of proximal development: (ZPD)

‘‘The zone of proximal development is the distance between the actual

developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and
the level of potential development as determined through problem
solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable
peers.’’ (Vygotsky, 1978)
Educational implications:

According to Brook (1993), constructivist teachers:

1. ‘Encourage and accept student autonomy and initiative.’ (P.103)

2. ‘Encourage students to engage in dialogue, both with the teacher and with one
another.’ (p. 108)

3. ‘Engage students in experiences that might engender contradictions to their initial

hypotheses and then encourage discussion.’ (p. 112)

4. ‘Assist the students in developing new insights and connecting them with their
previous learning.’ (P. 114)
References:
1. Ashcraft, M., (1989). Human Memory and Cognition, Glenview, II; Scott, Foreman.
2. Zhou, M., Brown, D. (2917) "Educational Learning Theories: 2nd Edition". Education Open Textbooks. Spring.
3. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
4. Elliott, S.N., Kratochwill, T.R., Littlefield Cook, J. & Travers, J. (2000). Educational psychology: Effective teaching, effective learning (3rd
ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill College.
5. Brooks, J. G. and Brooks, M. G. (1993). In Search of Understanding: the Case for Constructivist Classrooms. Alexandria, VA: Association
for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
6. Hanely, S. (1994). ‘On Constructivism’. Maryland Collaborative for Teacher Preparation. University of Maryland, Maryland.
7. RICHARDS, Jack C. and Theodor S. RODGERS, 2014 [1986]: Approaches and methods in language teaching, 3rd edition. Cambridge, UK:
University Press.
8. Suthers, D. (1996). Attention and automaticity. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, learning research and development center. Haziran 2002
de Https://www.pitt.edu/~Suthers/insfsci1042/attention.htmt (retrieved).
9. Eggen, P.& Kauchak, D., (1992). Education psychology: classroom Connections, NewYork, Macmillan.
10. Woolfolk, A. E. (1993) Educational Psychology. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Thank YOU for listening