Chapter 1

The Human Body:

An Orientation
Part 2

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Characteristics of Life
Organization:
• functional interrelationships between parts
Metabolism:
• sum of all chemical and physical changes sustaining an
organism
• ability to acquire and use energy in support of these
changes
Responsiveness:
• ability to sense and respond to environmental changes
• includes both internal and external environments
Characteristics of Life
Growth:
• can increase in size
• size of cells, groups of cells, extracellular materials
Development:
• changes in form and size
• changes in cell structure and function from generalized
to specialized—differentiation
Reproduction:
• formation of new cells or new organisms
• generation of new individuals
• tissue repair
 Maintaining Life: Necessary Life Functions

 Maintaining boundaries
 Boundaries separate the “inside” from the “outside”
 Movement
 Locomotion
 Movement of substances
 Responsiveness (irritability)
 Ability to sense changes and react
 Digestion
 Breakdown and absorption of nutrients

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Necessary Life Functions

 Metabolism—chemical reactions within the body

 Breaks down complex molecules into smaller ones
 Builds larger molecules from smaller ones
 Produces energy (ATP)
 Regulated by hormones
 Excretion
 Eliminates excreta (waste) from metabolic reactions
 Wastes may be removed in urine, feces, or sweat

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Necessary Life Functions

 Reproduction
 Occurs on cellular level or organismal level
 On cellular level—new cells are used for growth and
repair
 On organismal level—the reproductive system handles
the task
 Growth
 Increases cell size or body size (through increasing
the number of cells)
 Hormones play a major role

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Survival Needs

 Nutrients
 Chemicals used for energy and cell building
 Include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, and
minerals
 Oxygen
 Required for chemical reactions
 Made available by the cooperation of the respiratory
and cardiovascular systems

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Survival Needs

 Water
 60 to 80 percent of body weight
 Most abundant chemical in the human body
 Provides fluid base for body secretions and excretions
 Normal body temperature
 37ºC (98.6ºF)
 Below this temperature, chemical reactions slow and
stop
 Above this temperature, chemical reactions proceed
too rapidly

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Survival Needs

 Atmospheric pressure
 The force exerted on the surface of the body by the
weight of air
 Must be appropriate for gas exchange

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Let’s take a review!

 The sum of all chemical and physical changes

sustaining an organism
 Metabolism
 The ability to sense and respond to
environmental changes
 Responsiveness
 Process of removing excreta (waste) from
metabolic reactions
 Excretion

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Let’s take a review!

 Most abundant chemical in the human body and 60

to 80 percent of body weight
 Water
 Chemicals used for energy and cell building which
includes carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins,
and minerals
 Nutrients
 The force exerted on the surface of the body by the
weight of air
 Atmospheric pressure

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The Language of Anatomy

 Special terminology is used to prevent

misunderstanding
 Exact terms are used for:
 Position
 Direction
 Regions
 Structures

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The Language of Anatomy

 Anatomical position
 Standard body position used to avoid confusion
 Terminology refers to this position regardless of actual
body position
 Stand erect, feet parallel, arms hanging at the sides
with palms facing forward and thumbs pointing away
from the body

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 1.4a The anatomical position and regional terms.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Directional Terms

 Directional terms
 Explain location of one body structure in relation to
another

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Directional Terms

 Superior (cranial or cephalic): toward the head or

upper part of a structure or the body; above
 Inferior (caudal): away from the head or toward
the lower part of a structure or the body; below

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Directional Terms

 Anterior (ventral): toward or at the front of the

body; in front of
 Posterior (dorsal): toward or at the backside of
the body; behind

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Table 1.1 Orientation and Directional Terms (1 of 3)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Directional Terms

 Medial: toward or at the midline of the body; on

the inner side of
 Lateral: away from the midline of the body; on the
outer side of
 Intermediate: between a more medial and a more
lateral structure

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Directional Terms

 Proximal: close to the origin of the body part or

point of attachment to a limb to the body trunk
 Distal: farther from the origin of a body part or the
point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Table 1.1 Orientation and Directional Terms (2 of 3)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Directional Terms

 Superficial (external): toward or at the body

surface
 Deep (internal): away from the body surface;
more internal

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Table 1.1 Orientation and Directional Terms (3 of 3)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Regional Terms

 Anterior (ventral) body landmarks

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 1.4a The anatomical position and regional terms.

Cephalic
Frontal
Orbital Upper limb
Nasal Acromial
Buccal Deltoid
Oral Brachial (arm)
Mental Antecubital
Cervical
Olecranal
Thoracic
Sternal Antebrachial
Axillary (forearm)
Pectoral Carpal (wrist)

Abdominal Manus (hand)

Umbilical Digital
Pelvic
Inguinal
(groin) Lower limb
Coxal (hip)
Pubic (genital) Femoral (thigh)
Patellar

Crural (leg)
KEY:
Thorax Fibular
Abdomen Pedal (foot)
Tarsal (ankle)

Digital

(a) Anterior/Ventral
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.4a The anatomical position and regional terms.

Cephalic
Frontal
Orbital Upper limb
Nasal Acromial
Buccal Deltoid
Oral Brachial (arm)
Mental Antecubital
Cervical
Olecranal
Thoracic
Sternal Antebrachial
Axillary (forearm)
Pectoral Carpal (wrist)

Abdominal Manus (hand)

Umbilical Digital
Pelvic
Inguinal
(groin) Lower limb
Coxal (hip)
Pubic (genital) Femoral (thigh)
Patellar

Crural (leg)
KEY:
Thorax Fibular
Abdomen Pedal (foot)
Tarsal (ankle)

Digital

(a) Anterior/Ventral
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Regional Terms

 Posterior (dorsal) body landmarks

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 1.4b The anatomical position and regional terms.

Cephalic
Upper limb Occipital (back
Acromial of head)
Cervical
Brachial (arm)

Olecranal Back (dorsal)

Antebrachial Scapular
(forearm) Vertebral
Lumbar

Manus (hand) Sacral

Digital
Gluteal

Lower limb

Femoral (thigh)

Popliteal

Sural (calf)
Fibular
KEY:
Pedal (foot)
Back (Dorsum)
Calcaneal

Plantar
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
(b) Posterior/Dorsal
Figure 1.4b The anatomical position and regional terms.

Cephalic
Upper limb Occipital (back
Acromial of head)
Cervical
Brachial (arm)

Olecranal Back (dorsal)

Antebrachial Scapular
(forearm) Vertebral
Lumbar

Manus (hand) Sacral

Digital
Gluteal

Lower limb

Femoral (thigh)

Popliteal

Sural (calf)
Fibular
KEY:
Pedal (foot)
Back (Dorsum)
Calcaneal

Plantar
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
(b) Posterior/Dorsal
 Quick Review again :D

 The muscles are __________ to the bone

(superficial, inferior, deep)
 Answer: Superficial

 The shoulder is ___________ to the elbow

(distal, proximal)
 Answer: proximal

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Quick Review again :D

 The nose is ___________ to the forehead (superior,

inferior)
 Answer: inferior

 The breastbone is ___________ to the spine (anterior,

posterior)
 Answer: anterior

 The arms are __________ to the chest (medial, lateral

 Answer: lateral

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Quick Review again :D

 Match with anatomical term the common names

of body parts 
 1. Wrist
 Carpal
 2. Cheek
 Buccal
 3. Chin
 Mental

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

  4. ankle
 Tarsal
 5. posterior elbow
 Olecranal
 6.Calf
 Sural
 7. shoulder blade
 scapular

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

  8. knee
 Patella/Patellar
 9.Groin
 Inguinal
 10. hips
 Coxal

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 End of Part 2 

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Body Planes and Sections

 Sections are cuts along imaginary lines known as

planes
 Three types of planes or sections exist as right
angles to one another

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Body Planes and Sections

 A sagittal section divides the body (or organ) into

left and right parts
 A median, or midsagittal, section divides the body
(or organ) into equal left and right parts
 A frontal, or coronal, section divides the body (or
organ) into anterior and posterior parts
 A transverse, or cross, section divides the body
(or organ) into superior and inferior parts

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 1.5 The planes of the body—median, frontal, and transverse—with corresponding MRI scans.

(a) Median (midsagittal) (b) Frontal (coronal) plane (c) Transverse plane

Vertebral Right Left

column lung Heart lung Liver Aorta Pancreas Spleen

Rectum Intestines Liver Stomach Spleen Subcutaneous Spinal

fat layer cord
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Body Cavities

 Two internal body cavities

 Dorsal
 Ventral
 Body cavities provide varying degrees of
protection to organs within them

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 1.6 Body cavities.

Cranial
cavity

Thoracic
cavity

Diaphragm

Abdominal

Abdominopelvic
Spinal cavity
cavity

cavity
Pelvic
cavity

KEY:
Dorsal body cavity Ventral body cavity
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Body Cavities

 Dorsal body cavity has two subdivisions

1. Cranial cavity
 Houses the brain
 Protected by the skull
2. Spinal cavity
 Houses the spinal cord
 Protected by the vertebrae

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Body Cavities

 Ventral body cavity has two subdivisions

separated by the diaphragm
1. Thoracic cavity
2. Abdominopelvic cavity

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Thoracic cavity

 Cavity superior to the

diaphragm
 Houses heart, lungs, thymus
gland, esophagus
 Mediastinum, the central
region, space between lungs
houses heart, trachea, and
thymus gland, esophagus
 Protected by the rib cage

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Abdominopelvic cavity

 Cavity inferior to the

diaphragm
 Superior abdominal cavity
contains the stomach, liver,
and other organs
 Protected only by trunk
muscles
 Inferior pelvic cavity
contains reproductive
organs, bladder, and rectum
 Protected somewhat by
bony pelvis
 No physical structure
separates abdominal from
pelvic cavities
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Body Cavities

 Abdominopelvic cavity subdivisions

 Four quadrants
 Nine regions

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 1.7 The four abdominopelvic quadrants.

Right upper Left upper

quadrant quadrant
(RUQ) (LUQ)

Right lower Left lower

quadrant quadrant
(RLQ) (LLQ)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 1.8 The nine abdominopelvic regions.

Diaphragm
Liver Stomach

Right Left Large

hypochondriac Epigastric hypochondriac
region region region intestine Large
intestine
Right
Umbilical
Left Small intestine
lumbar lumbar
region region region

Appendix
Right iliac Hypogastric Left iliac Urinary
(inguinal) (pubic) (inguinal) bladder
region region region
(b) Anterior view of the nine regions
(a) Nine regions delineated by four planes showing the superficial organs

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Body Cavities

 Other body cavities include:

 Oral and digestive cavities
 Nasal cavity
 Orbital cavities
 Middle ear cavities

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Homeostasis

 Homeostasis—maintenance of relatively stable

internal conditions
 A dynamic state of equilibrium, or balance
 Necessary for normal body functioning and to sustain
life
 Main controlling systems
 Nervous system
 Endocrine system
 Homeostatic imbalance
 A disturbance in homeostasis results in disease

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Maintaining Homeostasis

 All homeostatic control mechanisms have at least

three components: receptor, control center, and
effector
 Receptor
 Responds to changes in the environment (stimuli)
 Sends information to control center along an afferent
pathway

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Maintaining Homeostasis

 Control center
 Determines set point
 Analyzes information
 Determines appropriate response
 Effector
 Provides a means for response to the stimulus
 Information flows from control center to effector along
efferent pathway

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Feedback Mechanisms

 Negative feedback
 Includes most homeostatic control mechanisms
 Shuts off the original stimulus or reduces its intensity
 Works like a household thermostat

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 1.9 The elements of a homeostatic control system. Slide 1

3 Input: Information 4 Output: Information

is sent along afferent Control is sent along efferent
pathway to control Center pathway to effector.
center. Efferent
Afferent
pathway pathway
Receptor Effector
2 Receptor
detects change. 5 Response
of effector feeds
IM back to reduce
BA
1 Stimulus LA the effect of
NC
produces E stimulus and
change in returns variable
VARIABLE (in homeostasis) to homeostatic
variable.
level.

IM
BA
LA
NC
E

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 1.9 The elements of a homeostatic control system. Slide 2

IM
BA
1 Stimulus LA
NC
produces E
change in
VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
variable.

IM
BA
LA
NC
E

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 1.9 The elements of a homeostatic control system. Slide 3

Receptor
2 Receptor
detects change.
IM
BA
1 Stimulus LA
NC
produces E
change in
VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
variable.

IM
BA
LA
NC
E

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 1.9 The elements of a homeostatic control system. Slide 4

3 Input: Information
is sent along afferent Control
pathway to control Center
center.
Afferent
pathway
Receptor
2 Receptor
detects change.
IM
BA
1 Stimulus LA
NC
produces E
change in
VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
variable.

IM
BA
LA
NC
E

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 1.9 The elements of a homeostatic control system. Slide 5

3 Input: Information 4 Output: Information

is sent along afferent Control is sent along efferent
pathway to control Center pathway to effector.
center. Efferent
Afferent
pathway pathway
Receptor Effector
2 Receptor
detects change.
IM
BA
1 Stimulus LA
NC
produces E
change in
VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
variable.

IM
BA
LA
NC
E

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 1.9 The elements of a homeostatic control system. Slide 6

3 Input: Information 4 Output: Information

is sent along afferent Control is sent along efferent
pathway to control Center pathway to effector.
center. Efferent
Afferent
pathway pathway
Receptor Effector
2 Receptor
detects change. 5 Response
of effector feeds
IM back to reduce
BA
1 Stimulus LA the effect of
NC
produces E stimulus and
change in returns variable
VARIABLE (in homeostasis) to homeostatic
variable.
level.

IM
BA
LA
NC
E

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Feedback Mechanisms

 Positive feedback
 Rare in the human body
 Increases the original stimulus to push the variable
farther
 Reaction occurs at a faster rate
 In the body, positive feedback occurs in blood clotting
and during the birth of a baby

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.