MODULE-I

KNOWLEDGE
REPRESENTATION
Prepared by: Dr. Ram Paul Hathwal
Dept of CSE, ASET, AUUP
 Outlines
Department of Computer
Science and Engineering

AI Techniques
Types of Knowledge
Procedural v/s Declarative Knowledge
Knowledge Representation Issues
Semantic Networks
FRAMES
Scripts
 Department of Computer
AI Techniques Science and Engineering

 Knowledge-based approaches

 Machine-learning approaches
 Department of Computer
Knowledge Base Science and Engineering

The knowledge base approaches that compute reasons

about statements deemed to be true about the world
 An operator/programmer implements such statements in
terms of rules
 A logical inference engine processes these rules to draw
patterns/capture knowledge about the world
 Machine Learning Department of Computer
Science and Engineering

Machine learning uses statistical concepts to draw patterns from

vast amount of data.
As opposed to encoding all human knowledge into a knowledge
base, machine learning extracts both subjective and intuitive
knowledge from raw data.
Machine learning approaches:
 Supervised learning
 Unsupervised learning
 Reinforcement learning

All can utilize deep learning based on whether they are using
more than one neural network layers.
 Department of Computer
Types of Knowledge Science and Engineering

Knowledge

Declarative Procedural

 Declarative knowledge deals with factoid questions (what is the capital of India?
Who won the Wimbledon in 2005? etc.)
 Procedural knowledge deals with “How”
 Procedural knowledge can be embedded in declarative knowledge
 Department of Computer
Procedural v/s Declarative Knowledge Science and Engineering

 A Declarative representation is one in which knowledge is specified but the

use to which that knowledge is to be put in, is not given.
 A Procedural representation is one in which the control information that is
necessary to use the knowledge is considered to be embedded in the
knowledge itself.
 To use a procedural representation, we need to augment it with an interpreter
that follows the instructions given in the knowledge.

7
 Department of Computer
Procedural v/s Declarative Knowledge Science and Engineering

 The difference between the declarative and the procedural views of knowledge
lies in where control information resides. Consider the example
 man(Marcus)
 man (Ceaser)
 Person(Cleopatra)
 Vx : man(x)  person(x)
 Now we want to extract from this knowledge base the ans to the question :
 Ǝy : person (y)
 Marcus, Ceaser and Cleopatra can be the answers

8
 Department of Computer
Procedural v/s Declarative Knowledge Science and Engineering

 As there is more than one value that satisfies the predicate, but only one value is
needed, the answer depends on the order in which the assertions are examined
during the search of a response.
 If we view the assertions as declarative, then we cannot depict how they will be
examined. If we view them as procedural, then they do.
 Let us view these assertions as a non deterministic program whose output is
simply not defined, now this means that there is no difference between Procedural
& Declarative Statements. But most of the machines don’t do so, they hold on to
what ever method they have, either sequential or in parallel. The focus is on
working on the control model.

9
 Department of Computer
Procedural v/s Declarative Knowledge Science and Engineering

 Example
 man(Marcus)
 man (Ceaser)
 Vx : man(x)  person(x)
 Person(Cleopatra)
 If we view this as declarative then there is no difference with the previous statement.
But viewed procedurally, and using the control model, we used to got Cleopatra as
the answer, now the answer is marcus.
 The answer can vary by changing the way the interpreter works.
 The distinction between the two forms is often very Fuzzy. Rather then trying to
prove which technique is better, what we should do is to figure out what the ways in
which rule formalisms and interpreters can be combined to solve problems. 10
 A Declarative and Department of Computer
Procedural Representation Science and Engineering

11

144
 Department of Computer
Knowledge Representation Schemes Science and Engineering

1. Propositional calculus
2. Predicate calculus
3. Semantic net
4. Frames

Predicate calculus is considered as the epitome of KR in terms

of adequacy and inferencing
 Department of Computer
Knowledge Representation Requirement Science and Engineering

Representational adequacy :-the ability to represent all of the kinds of knowledge

that are needed in that domain.
Inferential Adequacy: - the ability to manipulate the representation structures in such
a way as to derive new structures corresponding to new knowledge inferred from all.
Inferential Efficiency: - the ability to incorporate into the knowledge structure
additional information that can be used to focus the attention of the inference
mechanism in the most promising directions.
Acquisitioned Efficiency: - the ability to acquire new information easily. The
simplest case involves direct insertion by a person of new knowledge into the database.
 Department of Computer
Knowledge Representation Issues Science and Engineering

It becomes clear that particular knowledge representation models allow for more
specific more powerful problem solving mechanisms that operate on them.
Examine specific techniques that can be used for representing & manipulating
knowledge within programs.
Representation & Mapping
 Facts :- truths in some relevant world
 These are the things we want to represent.
 Representations of facts in some chosen formalism.
 Things we are actually manipulating. Structuring these entities is as two levels.
 The knowledge level, at which facts concluding each agents behavior & current
goals are described.
 Semantic Networks Department of Computer
Science and Engineering

Semantic Network is a structure for representing knowledge as a pattern of

interconnected nodes and arcs. It is also defined as a graphical representation of
knowledge.
The objects under consideration serves as nodes & the relationships with
another node give the arcs.
Nodes represent
Entities, Attributes, States or Events Arcs in the network give the relationship
between the nodes & Labels on the arc specify what type of relationship actually
exists.
 Department of Computer
Science and Engineering

is a is a
Scooter Two - wheeler Motor – bike

is a
has has
Brakes Moving – vehicles Engine

has has
Electrical system Fuel - system

Mammal
is a
Has part
Person Nose

Uniform color instance

Blue Pee-wee Reese Brooklyn Dodgers

team
 Department of Computer
Frames Science and Engineering

FRAMES :- means of representing common sense knowledge. Knowledge is organized into small packets
called “Frames”. All frames of a given situation constitute the system.
 A frame can be defined as a structure that has slots for various objects & a collection of frames consist of
expectation for a given situation.
Frame are used to represent two types of knowledge viz. declarative/factual and procedural, declarative &
procedural Frames: -
A frame that merely contains description about objects is call a declarative type/factual situational frame.
Name : Computer Centre
Name of the frame

A/c Stationary
cupboard Slots in the frame

Computer Dumb
terminals

Printer
 Department of Computer
Frames Science and Engineering

Frames which have procedural knowledge embedded in it are called action procedure
frames. The action frame has the following slots.
Actor slot which holds information @ who is performing the activity.
Source Slot hold information from where the action has to begin.
Destination slot holds information about the place where action has to end.
Task slot: This generates the necessary sub frames required to perform the operation.
Name : Cleaning the ict of carburetor

Actor
Expert
Object   
Source Destination
Scooter Scooter
Task 1 Task 2 Task 3
Remove Carburetor Clean Fix Carburetor
Nozzle
 Scripts Department of Computer
Science and Engineering

A mechanisms for representing knowledge about common sequences of events.

A script is a structure that describes a stereotyped sequence of events in a particular
content consist of slots  contains values/default values.
Components of a script
 Entry conditions – conditions before the events described in the script can occur.
 Result – conditions that will in general be true after the events described in the script have
occurred.
 Props - slots representing objects that are involved in the event described in the script.
 Roles – Slots representing people who are envolved in the events described in the script.
 Track – The specific variation on a more general pattern that is represented by this
particular script.
 Scenes – The actual sequences of events that occur.
 Department of Computer
Science and Engineering

Thanks!

7/5/22 20