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Logic
Logic
Overview
Scholastic logic
Propositional logic
– Syntax and semantics
– Inference rules
Predicate calculus
– Syntax and semantics
– Quantifiers
Higher-order logics and modal operators
Model theory
– The incremental, almost continuous nature of meaning
– Knowledge representation as an evolutionary process
Features of Logic KR Languages
Vocabulary
– Logical symbols
– Constants
– Variables
– Punctuation
Syntax
Semantics
– Theory of reference
– Theory of truth
Rules of inference
Automated Reasoning
bArbArA
– A: All broad-leafed plants are deciduous
– A: All vines are broadleaf plants
– A: Therefore, all vines are deciduous
Valid Syllogisms (cont.)
cElArEnt
– E: Nothing absent-minded is an elephant
– A: All professors are absent-minded
– E: Therefore, no professor is an elephant
Valid Syllogisms (cont.)
dArII
– A: All trailer trucks are 18 wheelers
– I: Some Peterbilt is a trailer truck
– I: Therefore, some Peterbilt is an 18 Wheeler
Valid Syllogisms (cont.)
fErIO
– E: No Corvette is a truck
– I: Some Chevrolet is a Corvette
– O: Therefore, some Chevrolet is not a truck
Boolean Algebra
George Boole
System of representing and operating on
truth values
pxq AND
p+q OR
-p NOT
First Order Logic (FOL)
Expressive power
Extensive Semantics
Best-defined model and proof theories
Syntax of Propositional Logic
Symbols
– Logical constants True, False
– Proposition symbols: P, Q, …
– Logical connectives:
not (aka “? ”)
and (aka “? ”)
or (aka “? ”)
=> (aka “? ”)
iff (aka “? ”)
Sentences are made from these symbols
Sentences
Variations of FOL
– Syntax
– Subsets
– Proof theory
– Model theory
– Ontology
– Metalanguage
Reification
Formal trick:
– For each predicate, create a constant that stands for it
In KIF, it is the tuple semantics of the predicate
Requires an axiom schema (think “macro”)
– Use those constants in axioms
– Since they are constants, the resulting theory is first-order
Useful for expressing control knowledge
– Reify facts, so one can say when they are relevant
Reification Example
Include state = 1
Include state = 1
Bump
The
Generalitemreliability
node reifies
of
the
this schema
schema node’s
node is
verification
low, but local conditions
reliability
Host link
is high
Schema Node
Item Node
“Wall to the left”
Move Left
Synthetic Item
Bump
Bump
Item Node
“Wall to the left”
Schema Node
Schema Node
1) Context spin-offs
3) Applicability
Prediction
2) Successful Item
byofbeing
host Node
refine the
inexecution
the
schema verification
result
nodes
of
set “Wall to the left”
host
of a
conditions
schema
schema nodes
node
Move Left
At pos. 1, 3 Move Left
Modal Operators
Modal operators extend the expressive power of a
logic by specifying context
– Metaphor: quotation and backquote
– Can use reification of their semantics to drop the reasoning
to first order, but can still be hairy
Classic examples from logic: (necessary P),
(possible P)
– (iff (necessary P) (not (possible (not P))))
Classic examples from AI/Philosophy: (Knows A
P), (Believes A P)
(=> (knows John (visible morning-star))
(knows John (visible evening-star)))
Model Theory