Petroleum Technology (CHE1014)

Module 6: Properties of Petroleum Products

Prof. Samarshi Chakraborty

School of Chemical Engineering
Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore
Email ID: samarshi.chakraborty@vit.ac.in

01/08/2022 Module 6: Properties of Petroleum Products 1

 Course Outcome 1 - 5:
1. Explain the composition of crude oil and its products, along with its properties and characterization methods.
2. Discuss the basic separation and conversion processes used in refining crude oil.
3. Implement the chemical engineering principles to the analysis of safe and efficient refinery operations.
4. Identify the specifications required for good quality petroleum product.
5. Exemplify the process of purification and fractionation of crude oil

Module 6: Specific gravity - Vapor pressure – Viscosity - red wood viscometer - Flash point -
Fire point - Pour point - Smoke point - Aniline point - Diesel index - Octane number -
Performance number -Cetane number - Properties of greases - Drop point of grease

01/08/2022 Module 6: Properties of Petroleum Products 2

Flash Point and Fire Point
• The flash point of a volatile material is the lowest temperature at which it
can vaporize to form an ignitable mixture in air. Measuring a flash point
requires an ignition source.

• Penskey Martens Flash Point Apparatus Laboratory test.

• Abel Flash point Apparatus Laboratory test

• The fire point of a fuel is the temperature at which it will continue to burn
for at least 5 seconds after ignition by an open flame.

01/08/2022 Module 6: Properties of Petroleum Products 3

Flash Point of Liquid Fuel
Flash point is the lowest temperature corrected
to a barometric pressure of 101.3 kPa (760 mm
Hg), at which application of an ignition source
causes the vapors of a specimen of the sample to
ignite under specified conditions of test (ASTM
D92 & D93) It is only one of a number of
properties that should be considered in assessing
the overall flammability hazard of a material.
Flash point is used in shipping and safety
regulations to define flammable and combustible
materials. Flash point can indicate the possible
presence of highly volatile and flammable
component in a relatively nonvolatile or
nonflammable material. For example, an
Open Cup: ASTM D92 abnormally low flash point on a test specimen of
engine oil can indicate gasoline contamination.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cPJLw7Xkmzk

01/08/2022 Module 6: Properties of Petroleum Products 4

Fire Point of Liquid Fuel
Fire point is the lowest temperature corrected to a barometric pressure of 101.3
kPa (760 mm Hg), at which application of an ignition source causes the vapors of
a test specimen of the sample to ignite and sustain burning for a minimum of 5 s
under specified conditions of test.
Very Important Video Link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yLtuDv3GzWo
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P2FzWcV-HAk

ASTM D93
Closed Cup

https://www.situbiosciences.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/
https://www.antonpaar.com/fileadmin/images/products/benchtop/
Flashpoint_Pensky-300x300.jpg ProveTec_Volatility/H03IF002-B_PMA5_01.jpg

01/08/2022 Module 1: Classification and Properties of Fuels 5

Difference between Closed Cup and Open Cup
Open Cup Flash Point (ASTM D92)
In these types of tests the vessel is open to the air. The temperature is raised slowly and a source of ignition
passed over the top, until it “flashes” or ignites.
A key variable in this test is the height of the ignition source over the cup. One of the most common open cup
methods is the Cleveland Open Cup (COC) flash point test, as described by ASTM D92.
Closed Cup Flash Point (ASTM D93)
In closed cup tests the sample is tested inside a closed vessel – the lid is sealed and the ignition source is
brought into the vessel, so it is completely separate from the outside atmosphere. This type of test gives a
good simulation of the conditions inside a fuel tank.
Pensky-Martens and Tag are popular closed cup flash point tests, or smaller units like the Rapid Flash for fast
results.
Closed cup tests are in a defined and separated vessel, so the results are less subject to interference by outside
sources. They also give lower flash points as the heat is contained more than in an closed vessel.

All flash point tests are affected by other criteria including the lab environment they are conducted in, the
exact equipment and method used.

01/08/2022 Module 6: Properties of Petroleum Products 6

Flash Point and Ignition Temperature of Fuel

https://qph.fs.quoracdn.net/main-qimg-5fe5e49914b6a94e7913c8811f240d93 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_point

More Information: https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/flash-point-fuels-d_937.html

01/08/2022 Module 6: Properties of Petroleum Products 7
Flash Point and Fire Point
Gasoline has a flash point around -43⁰ C whereas diesel has flash points higher than 52⁰ C.
Lower flash points are the indicators of good flammability and volatility. Therefore, gasoline
makes faster vapour formation than diesel and instantly catches fire when spark, an
external flame source, is provided. However, as its autoignition temperature is high (in low
compression ratio gasoline engine perspective), which is in the order of 247-280⁰ C, it does
not ignite prematurely due to the residual heat generated during compression stroke and
heat transfer from wall. On the contrary, the higher flash point of diesel indicates poor
vaporization tendencies and lesser tendency to ignite subjected to external flame source.
However, as the autoignition temperature of diesel is low (in high compression ratio diesel
engine perspective), which is in the order of 210⁰ C, diesel auto-ignites easily with the
residual heating during compression stroke and heat transfer from wall without the need of
an external flame source such as spark plug.

http://web.iitd.ac.in/~pmvs/courses/mcl241/Flash%20and%20fire%20point.pdf

01/08/2022 Module 6: Properties of Petroleum Products 8

Flash Point and Fire Point
• Vegetable oils have significantly high flash points which are in the order of diesel fuels
and higher. Hence their vaporization and mixing are a huge challenge for direct engine
applications. Therefore, vegetable oils are transesterified to produce fatty acid methyl
esters or biodiesel which has comparable flash point for direct compression ignited diesel
engine application. In the alcohol category, methanol has a flash point of around 12⁰ C
and autoignition temperature of 470⁰ C. Similarly, ethanol has 16⁰ C flash point and
autoignition temperature around 365⁰ C indicating their close proximity to gasoline fuel
and potential alternative fuel application in spark ignited engines.

http://web.iitd.ac.in/~pmvs/courses/mcl241/Flash%20and%20fire%20point.pdf

01/08/2022 Module 6: Properties of Petroleum Products 9

Penskey Martens Flash Point Apparatus Laboratory test
Objective: To determine the flash and fire point of a given sample using Pensky Martens flash point apparatus
and determination of experimental repeatability.
Apparatus and consumables required:
a) Pensky-Martens flash point apparatus.
b) Thermometer of suitable range.
c) Test samples.
Methodology and procedure
Preparation of samples
a) Samples should be in reasonably fluid state before testing. For asphalts and other viscous materials,
preheating should be done to ensure fluidity before testing.
b) Samples may be warmed with constant heating rate. However, under no circumstances, should be heated
above a temperature that lies 16⁰ C below the expected flash point.
c) Samples containing dissolved water may be dehydrated with calcium chloride or by filtering through a
suitable filter paper. If the same is not done, its consequence on experimental results and repeatability should
be duly inferred.

http://web.iitd.ac.in/~pmvs/courses/mcl241/Flash%20and%20fire%20point.pdf
01/08/2022 Module 6: Properties of Petroleum Products 10
Penskey Martens Flash Point Apparatus Laboratory test
Generalized procedure
a) Clean and dry all parts of the cup thoroughly.
b) Fill the cup with the sample to be tested to the level indicated by the filling mark.
c) Place the lid on the cup and set the latter on the stove.
d) Insert the thermometer and supply heat with the help of the rheostat switch to ensure temperature rise rate not more than 5
to 6⁰ C per minute.
e) Turn the stirrer with 90 to 120 rpm in a downward direction.
f) Provide the test flame time to time and start nearly 17⁰ C below the expected flash point of the sample with 0.5 to 1⁰ C gap.
g) Lower the test flame to the vapour space of the cup for 5s and allow it to be there for 1s. After that move the test flame up as
quickly as possible and shut down the lid for vapour build up.
h) Do not stir the sample while providing the test flame.
i) Denote the flash point and fire point accordingly.
j) For suspension of solids, follow the procedure as mentioned below.
• Bring the materials to be tested to a temperature of 15±5⁰ C or 11⁰ C lower than estimated flash point.
• Turn the stirrer at 250±10 rpm in a downward direction.
• Raise the temperature throughout the duration of the test at a rate not less than 1⁰ C or more than 1.5⁰ C per minute.
• The rest of the procedures same as the generalized one.

http://web.iitd.ac.in/~pmvs/courses/mcl241/Flash%20and%20fire%20point.pdf
01/08/2022 Module 6: Properties of Petroleum Products 11
Cloud and Pour Point
The temperature of the test specimen at which wax crystals have formed sufficiently to be
observed as a cloud from a petroleum fraction
• Applicable for petroleum products and biodiesel fuels
• An index of the lowest temperature of their utility for certain applications.
• Petroleum blending operations require a precise measurement of the cloud point.
Pour Point:
The lowest temperature at which it will pour or flow under prescribed conditions. It is a rough
indication of the lowest temperature at which oil is readily pumpable. Can be defined as the
minimum temperature of a liquid, particularly a lubricant, after which, on decreasing the
temperature, the liquid ceases to flow.
01/08/2022 Module 6: Properties of Petroleum Products 12
Smoke Point
It is the maximum height of flame in millimeter of which the fuel will burn without a smoke.
Its an indication of clean burning property of kerosene.
Illumination depends on flame dimension and not on flame height.
Provides an indication of the relative smoke producing properties of kerosenes and aviation turbine
fuels in a diffusion flame.
Related to the hydrocarbon type composition of such fuels, esp. aromatics
More aromatic the fuel the smokier the flame.
A high smoke point indicates a fuel of low smoke producing tendency.
The smoke point is quantitatively related to the potential radiant heat transfer from the combustion
products of the fuel.
01/08/2022 Module 6: Properties of Petroleum Products 13
Aniline Point
Temperature at which exactly equal parts of two components are Miscible- Aniline & Any petroleum fraction/oil
• Increases slightly with molecular weight
• Increases rapidly with paraffinic character
• Higher the aniline point- lower is the aromatics content in the fraction.
The aniline point (AP) correlates roughly with the amount and type of aromatic hydrocarbons in an oil sample. A low AP is
indicative of higher aromatics, while a high AP is indicative of lower aromatics content. The API has developed test procedures
that are the standard for the industry.
• This is an approximate measure of the aromatic content of a hydrocarbon fuel.
• It is defined as the lowest temperature at which a fuel oil is completely miscible with an equal volume of aniline.
• Aniline is an aromatic compound and aromatics are more miscible in aniline than are paraffins.
• Hence, the lower the aniline point, the higher the aromatics content in the fuel oil. The higher the aromatics content, the
lower the cetane number of the fuel. The aniline point can thus be used to indicate the probable ignition behavior of a
diesel fuel. https://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/en/Terms/a/aniline_point_test.aspx

01/08/2022 Module 6: Properties of Petroleum Products 14

Octane Number
The percentage volume of i-octane (2,2,4-trimethyl pentane) in a mixture of i-octane and n-heptane that gives the same
knocking characteristics as the fuel under consideration.
Its because of untimely burning of fuel in a spark ignition engine
Additives like Tetraethyl Lead or Methyl lead are extensively blended to boost the Octane number
With increase in altitude, a fuel of less octane number is satisfactory.
If a gasoline sample has the same antiknock quality as that of a mixture containing 90% isooctane and 10% heptane, then
the octane number for that sample is defined as 90.
Some hydrocarbons have higher anti-knocking capacity than iso-octane. Hence, octane number definition is extended to
allow octane numbers higher than 100.
Octane number is expressed as
Octane number =[(power number -100)/3] +100
Power number is the quantity proportional to the power supplied by the engine.
https://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/en/Terms/a/aniline_point_test.aspx
01/08/2022 Module 6: Properties of Petroleum Products 15
Research and Motor Octane Number
Depending on the measurement techniques, there are following different types of
octane numbers defined:

Research Octane Number (RON); is most commonly used octane number and it is
determined by burning the fuel in a test engine under controlled conditions and
variable compression ratios. Then the results are compared with mixtures of iso-
octane and heptane.
Motor Octane Number (MON); testing uses a similar test engine to that used in
RON testing, but with a preheated fuel mixture, higher engine speed (900 RPM
instead of 600 RPM used for RON), and variable ignition timing to further stress the
fuel's knock resistance. MON is a better measure of how a fuel will actually behave
when under a higher load than normal.

01/08/2022 Module 6: Properties of Petroleum Products 16

Research and Motor Octane Number
Depending on the composition of the fuel, the MON of a modern gasoline will be
about 8 to 10 points lower than the RON, however there is no direct link between
RON and MON.
Some times an average of RON and MON known as Anti Knock Index (AKI) is
specified in some locations. This is also known as Road Octane Number (RdON) or
Pump Octane Number (PON).
Anti-Knock Index (AKI) or (RON+MON)/2
In most countries, including Australia, New Zealand and all of those in Europe,
[citation needed] the "headline" octane rating shown on the pump is the RON.
But in Canada, the United States, Brazil, and some other countries, the headline
number is the average of the RON and the MON.

01/08/2022 Module 6: Properties of Petroleum Products 17

Cetane number
The cetane number of a diesel oil is defined as the percentage of cetane in a
mixture of cetane and α-methyl naphthalene which will have the same ignition
characteristics as the fuel under test, under same set of conditions.
Cetane is n-hexadecane.
Cetane is a paraffin of high ignition quality (value 100) and α-methyl naphthalene
is an aromatic compound of very bad ignition quality (value 0).
The cetane rating of a fuel depend upon the nature and composition of
hydrocarbon. The straight chain hydrocarbons ignite quite readily while aromatics
do not ignite easily. Ignition quality order among the constituents of diesel engine
fuels in order of decreasing cetane no, is as follows:
n-alkanes> naphthenes > alkenes > branched alkanes > aromatics

01/08/2022 Module 6: Properties of Petroleum Products 18

Diesel Index
The Diesel Index indicates the ignition quality of the fuel. It is found to
correlate, approximately, to the cetane number of commercial fuels. It is
obtained by the following equation
𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑝𝑜∫ ❑ 𝐹 𝑥 𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 𝐴𝑃𝐼 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 60 ❑𝐹 )
( 𝑜
) ( 𝑜

𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥=
100
Lower values will result in smoky exhaust.

01/08/2022 Module 6: Properties of Petroleum Products 19

Specific Gravity
Specific Gravity - SG - is a dimensionless unit defined for liquids as "the ratio of the density of the substance to the
density of water at a specified temperature". For gases the Specific Gravity is related to air.
Density is defined as mass per unit volume of a fluid. The density of crude oil and liquid hydrocarbons is usually
reported in terms of specific gravity (SG) or relative density, defined as the density of the liquid material at 60°F (15.6°C)
divided by the density of liquid water at 60°F. At a reference temperature of 15.6°C, the density of liquid water is 0.999
g/cm3 (999 kg/m3),. Therefore, for a hydrocarbon or a petroleum fraction, the SG is defined as:
SG(60∘F/60∘F), or (15.6∘C/15.6∘C)=(Density of liquid at 60∘F in g/cm3)/(0.999g/cm 3)
In the early years of the petroleum industry, the American Petroleum Institute (API) adopted the API gravity (°API) as a
measure of the crude oil density. The API gravity is calculated from the following equation:
°API=141.5/ (SG15.6°C)−131.5
The API of crude oils varies typically between 10 and 50, with most crude oils falling in the range of 20-45. Using API
gravity, the conventional crude oils can be generally considered as light (°API>30), medium (30>°API>22), and heavy
(°API<22).
Among the hydrocarbons, aromatic hydrocarbons have higher SG (lower °API) than paraffinic hydrocarbons with the
same number of carbon atoms. For example, benzene has an SG of 0.883 (°API of 28.7), whereas n-hexane has an SG of
0.665 (°API of 81.3). Therefore, the heavy (high-density) crude oils tend to have high concentrations of aromatic
hydrocarbons, whereas the light (low-density) crude oils have high concentrations of paraffinic hydrocarbons.
https://www.e-education.psu.edu/fsc432/content/api-gravity

01/08/2022 Module 6: Properties of Petroleum Products 20

Different Classification of Crude Oil
1. Based on Sulphur Content:
 Sour Crude: Sulphur greater than 1 wt% ( Treatment needed)
 Sweet Crude: Sulphur less than 0.5wt%
2. Based on oAPI:
 Light : API >31.1 (Low in aromatic content, High in paraffinic content)
 Medium: API  between 22.3 and 31.1
 Heavy: API < 22.3
 Extra Heavy: API <10.0 (High in aromatic content)
o
API=

http://www.petroleum.co.uk/api

01/08/2022 Module 6: Properties of Petroleum Products 21

Different Classification of Crude Oil (Contd.)
• Based on Characterization factors:

KW= TB1/3/ G ,

Where, TB is the mean average boiling point, and G is the specific gravity at 60 oF/15oC.

The Watson characterization factor : KW ~15 for highly paraffinic compounds , KW <10 for highly aromatic materials and

KW vary from 10.5 to 12.9. For a highly naphthenic crude it is 10.5 and for a paraffinic base crude it is 12.9.

• Based on Correlation index:

• CI is useful in evaluating individual fractions from crude oils. The CI scale is based upon straight-chain paraffins
having a CI value of 0 and benzene having a CI value of 100 and is defined as follows:

C.I = 87552/TB + 473.7 G – 456.8

Low CI  high content of paraffinic HC , High CI  high content of naphthenic and aromatics
http://nptel.ac.in/courses/103102022/4

01/08/2022 Module 6: Properties of Petroleum Products 22

Reid Vapour Pressure
Reid vapor pressure (RVP) is a common measure of the volatility of gasoline and other petroleum products. It is defined as the absolute
vapor pressure exerted by the vapor of the liquid and any dissolved gases/moisture at 37.8 °C (100 °F) as determined by the test
method ASTM-D-323, which was first developed in 1930 and has been revised several times (the latest version is ASTM D323-15a). The
test method measures the vapor pressure of gasoline, volatile crude oil, jet fuels, naphtha, and other volatile petroleum products but is
not applicable for liquefied petroleum gases. ASTM D323-15a requires that the sample be chilled to 0-1 degrees Celsius and then
poured into the apparatus; for any material that solidifies at this temperature, this step cannot be performed. RVP is commonly
reported in kilopascals or pounds per square inch and represents volatization at atmospheric pressure because ASTM-D-323 measures
the gauge pressure of the sample in a non-evacuated chamber.
The matter of vapor pressure is important relating to the function and operation of gasoline-powered, especially carbureted, vehicles
and is also important for many other reasons. High levels of vaporization are desirable for winter starting and operation and lower
levels are desirable in avoiding vapor lock during summer heat. Fuel cannot be pumped when there is vapor in the fuel line (summer)
and winter starting will be more difficult when liquid gasoline in the combustion chambers has not vaporized. Thus, oil refineries
manipulate the Reid Vapor Pressure seasonally specifically to maintain gasoline engine reliability.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reid_vapor_pressure

01/08/2022 Module 6: Properties of Petroleum Products 23

Difference between RVP and TVP
The Reid vapor pressure (RVP) can differ substantially from the true vapor pressure (TVP) of a liquid
mixture, since
• RVP is the vapor pressure measured at 37.8 °C (100 °F) and the TVP is a function of the temperature;
• RVP is defined as being measured at a vapor-to-liquid ratio of 4:1, whereas the TVP of mixtures can
depend on the actual vapor-to-liquid ratio;
• RVP will include the pressure associated with the presence of dissolved water and air in the sample
(which is excluded in TVP);
• The RVP method is applied to a sample which has had the opportunity to volatize somewhat prior to
measurement: i.e., the sample container is required to be only 70-80% full of liquid (so that whatever
volatizes into the container headspace is lost prior to analysis); the sample then again volatizes into the
headspace of the D323 test chamber before it is heated to 37.8 degrees Celsius.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reid_vapor_pressure

01/08/2022 Module 6: Properties of Petroleum Products 24

Viscosity
Viscosity, commonly depicted by the symbol μ, is a physical property of a fluid that describes its tendency/resistance to flow. A
high-viscosity fluid has a low tendency to flow, whereas low-viscosity fluids flow easily. Newton’s Law of Viscosity provides a
physical definition of viscosity. Power requirement to transport (e.g., to pump) a fluid depends strongly on the fluid’s viscosity.
Interestingly, the viscosity of liquid decreases with increasing temperature, while viscosity of gases increases with increasing
temperature. Among petroleum products, viscosity constitutes a critically important characteristic of lubricating engine oils.
Viscosity of liquids is usually measured in terms of kinematic viscosity, which is defined as the ratio of absolute (dynamic)
viscosity to absolute density (ν = μ/ρ). Kinematic viscosity is expressed in units of centistokes (cSt), Saybolt Universal seconds
(SUS), and Saybolt Furol seconds (SFS). Values of kinematic viscosity for pure liquid hydrocarbons are usually measured and
reported at two reference temperatures, 38°C (100°F) and 99°C (210°F) in cSt. However, different reference temperatures,
such as 40°C (104 °F), 50 °C (122 °F), and 60 °C(140 °F), are also used to report kinematic viscosities of petroleum fractions.
The viscosity of crude oils can be measured using a standard method (ASTM D2983).

https://www.e-education.psu.edu/fsc432/content/viscosity

01/08/2022 Module 6: Properties of Petroleum Products 25

Kinematic vs Dynamic Viscosity
• The resistance of a fluid to flow or deform Properties Kinematic Viscosity Dynamic Viscosity
when subjected to a force is called viscosity.
Dynamic viscosity is expressed as the ratio Also known as Diffusivity of momentum Absolute Viscosity
of shear stress to shear strain. The unit of
measurement is Pa s. Usually, it is measured Represents Inertia as well as viscous The viscous force of the
force fluid
in centipoise (cP). Kinematic viscosity is
expressed as the ratio of fluid dynamic Symbol ν μ
viscosity to its density. The unit of Ratio The ratio of dynamic The ratio of shear stress
measurement is m2s-1. viscosity to density to shear strain
• Any two different fluids can have the same
dynamic viscosity but will never have the
same kinematic viscosity because of the Used When inertia, as well as When viscous force is
viscous force, is dominant dominant
density difference. Here we are discussing
major Difference Between Kinematic And
Dynamic Viscosity. Density Dependent Independent
Unit m2/s Ns/m2
https://byjus.com/physics/difference-between-kinematic-and-dynamic-viscosity/

01/08/2022 Module 6: Properties of Petroleum Products 26

Redwood Viscometer Procedure
(1) Clean the cylindrical oil cup and ensure the orifice tube
is free from dirt .
(2) Close the orifice with ball valve.
(3) Place the 50 ml flask below the opening of the Orifice .
(4) Fill the oil in the cylindrical oil cup upto the mark in the
cup .
(5) Fill the water in the water bath.
(6) Insert the thermometers in their respective places to
measure the oil and water bath temperatures.
(7) Heat the by heating the water bath, Stirred the water
bath and maintain the uniform temperature.
(8) At particular temperature lift the ball valve and collect
the oil in the 50 ml flask and note the time taken in
seconds for the collecting 50 ml of oil . A stop watch is
used measure the time taken . This time is called
Redwood seconds .
(9) Increase the temperature and repeat the procedure ‘8’
and note down the Redwood seconds for different
temperatures .

01/08/2022 Module 6: Properties of Petroleum Products 27

Red wood Viscometer Description :
The redwood viscometer consist of vertical cylindrical oil cup with
an orifice in the centre of its base . The orifice can be closed by a
ball . A hook pointing upward serve as a guide mark for filling the
oil . The cylindrical cup is surrounded by the water bath . The
water bath maintain the temperature of the oil to be tested at
constant temperature . The oil is heated by heating the water
bath by means of an immersed electric heater in the water bath ,
The provision is made for stirring the water , to maintain the
uniform temperature in the water bath and to place the
thermometer ti record the temperature of oil and water bath .
The cylinder is 47.625mm in diameter and 88.90mm deep . The
orifice is 1.70mm in diameter and 12mm in length , This
viscometer is used to determine the kinematic viscosity of the oil.
From the kinematic viscosity the dynamic viscosity is determined .
http://pacetmechanical.weebly.com/uploads/6/1/9/7/6197211/redwood_viscometer.pdf
01/08/2022 Module 6: Properties of Petroleum Products 28
What is Grease
A solid or semi-solid product of dispersion of a thickening agent in lubricating oil. Other ingredients imparting special
properties may be included.

Chariots from another Egyptian Pharaoh's tomb dated to around 1400 B.C. are found with what seems an early form of
grease derived from animal fat on the axle. While there are evidences showing the use of natural asphalt, most of the
lubricating oil used in these times was based on animal or vegetable fat. It was only in modern times when grease
formulated with petroleum lubricating oil came into use.

Classification of Lubricants
• Liquid lubricant: Lubricating oil
• Semi-solid lubricant: Grease,
• Solid lubricant: Molybdenum disulfide, Graphite, etc.

https://www.kyodoyushi.co.jp/english/knowledge/grease/history/ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=grfLkzjyc-o

01/08/2022 Module 6: Properties of Petroleum Products 29

Properties of Greases :
Item Grease Lubrication Oil Lubrication
Feeding device Grease sealed bearing does not require Requires a device that continuously
relubrication for an extended period. feeds oil (drip-feed, splash feed,
recirculation system).

Consumption Can be kept to the minimum necessary. Significant amount required.

Lubrication system Simple. Complex.

Leakage Unlikely because of its seal forming Possible if sealing system is adequate.
characteristics.
Use for high-speed application Limited. Yes.
Contaminant removal No. Continual removal by filtration or
centrifuge.
Cooling efficiency No cooling capacity. High cooling capacity.
Friction loss Generally high, but torque reduction can Generally low.
be achieved by channeling in roller
bearings.
https://www.kyodoyushi.co.jp/english/knowledge/grease/about/

01/08/2022 Module 6: Properties of Petroleum Products 30

Types of Grease
Calcium Soap Grease
In a typical manufacturing process of calcium soap grease, mineral oil, fatty acid, calcium hydroxide (hydrated lime) and
water are mixed and cooked to bring to saponification. The process is complete after adjustment of water content. Grease
made contains a small amount of water as structural stabilizer, and, when heated above 80°C, it loses its associated water,
resulting in structure breakdown and separation of oil from thickener. Due to this poor heat resistance, it is used for general
plain bearings operating under rather low speed and low load where temperature would not rise above 70°C in service. The
water resistance is good on the other hand, and thus the grease performs well in applications exposed to water. Use of
caster oil fatty acid results in a grease which contains no water. Because the structure is stabilized without water, it can be
used up to about 100°C.
Lithium Soap Grease
Lithium soap grease is the most widely used multi-purpose grease, from general industrial uses to automobiles, bearings and
home electric products. It consists of mineral or synthetic oil and lithium stearate or lithium salt, a hardened fatty acid
derived from castor oil. Usable in a wide range of temperature, and has excellent water resistance and mechanical stability.
Aluminum Complex Soap Grease
Aluminum complex grease is made from a complex soap which is formed by reaction of aromatic carboxylic acid and stearic
acid on aluminum hydroxide. Aluminum complex grease is characterized by a very fine fiber structure, high dropping point
(200°C or above) , excellent heat and water resistance and mechanical stability.
https://www.kyodoyushi.co.jp/english/knowledge/grease/about/

01/08/2022 Module 6: Properties of Petroleum Products 31

Types of Grease
Lithium Complex Soap Grease
The soap is formed by reaction of lithium hydroxide with the mixture of fatty acid and dibasic acid. The dropping
point of the finished grease is 250°C or higher. Lithium complex grease has excellent heat and water resistance
and rust preventing property, as well as longer life at high temperature than lithium soap grease.
Non-Soap Greases
Urea Grease
Typical urea grease formulation uses organic compound containing more than two urea groups (-NH-CO-NH-) as
thickening agent. Because of its excellent heat and water resistance, urea grease is an optimum choice for
continuous casting lines and iron mills, and actually is the most widely used nonsoap grease.
Urea grease is also widely used for automotive electrical components. For high temperature condition, synthetic
oil based urea grease is preferred.

https://www.kyodoyushi.co.jp/english/knowledge/grease/about/

01/08/2022 Module 6: Properties of Petroleum Products 32

Properties of Greases :
Bentonite Grease
This grease thickened by organic bentonite is often called "grease without dropping point" or "grease without
melting point," because it does not lose the grease structure even at extremely high temperature.
The grease can offer other advantages like good shear stability, but its application is limited because of rather
poor rust prevention, hardening tendency when exposed to high temperature condition (200°C or above) for a
long time, and poor ability to keep oil film on the bearing race surface during high speed rotation.
Other Non-Soap Greases
Other nonsoap greases include Na terephthalamate Grease, Copper Phthalocyanine Grease, Teflon (PTFE)
Grease, Mica Grease and Silica Gel Grease.

https://www.kyodoyushi.co.jp/english/knowledge/grease/about/

01/08/2022 Module 6: Properties of Petroleum Products 33

Soap Thickener
Maximum
  Thickener type Water resistance Shear Stability Remarks
temperature limit
Calcium soap (stearate) 70°C F F Contains water (1%) as
structural stabilizer.

Calcium soap 100°C G G Contains no water.

(hydroxystearate)
Aluminum soap 80°C G P Excellent adhesive
Metalic soap characteristics.
Sodium soap 120°C P F Emulsifies with water.
Lithium soap 130°C G G All-purpose with least
(stearate) weak points.
Lithium soap 130°C G E All-purpose with least
(hydroxystearate) weak points.
Calcium complex 150°C G G Tends to harden by
time and heat.
Aluminum complex 150°C E E Water-repellent type:
Complex soap good pumpability
Lithium complex 150°C G E Lithium soap grease
with better heat
resistance.

https://www.kyodoyushi.co.jp/english/knowledge/grease/about/ O: Outstanding   E: Excellent   G: Good   F: Fair   P: Poor

01/08/2022 Module 6: Properties of Petroleum Products 34

Non-Soap Thickener
Maximum temperature
  Thickener type Water resistance Shear Stability Remarks
limit
Diurea Aromatic diurea 180°C O O Most stable urea; optimum for
sealed application.
Aliphatic diurea 180°C E E All-purpose shear - softening type;
optimum for centralized system.
Urea Alicyclic diurea 180°C E E All-purpose but some tends to
harden by shear.
Triurea 180°C G F Hardens by heat.
Tetraurea (Polyurea) 180°C G F Softens by shear; wide batch to
batch variation.
Sodium terephthalamate 180°C G G High oil separation tendency,
susceptible to oxidation due to its
constituent metal group.
Organic
PTFE 250°C O O Most stable but costly and requires
high usage.
Organic bentonite 200°C F G Carbonized if used at high
temperature for prolonged periods.
Inorganic
Silica gel 200°C P P Susceptible to rusting in the
presence of moisture.

O: Outstanding   E: Excellent   G: Good   F: Fair   P: Poor
https://www.kyodoyushi.co.jp/english/knowledge/grease/about/

01/08/2022 Module 6: Properties of Petroleum Products 35

Oil based grease
Mineral oil based grease

Most of the greases used today are based on mineral oil.

Synthetic oil based grease

Synthetic oil grease is used for certain conditions where conventional mineral oil grease fails (in low-temperature property,
heat resistance, low-torque property or longer life). Synthetic greases come in many different characteristics depending on
the type of the oil used.
Ester oil based grease (diester, polyol ester, etc.)

Provides excellent lubricity; Usable over a wide temperature range from very low to very high; Tends to swell rubber.

Synthetic hydrocarbon oil based grease

Usable over a wide temperature range from very low to very high; Good rubber/plastic compatibility (because of the
absence of polar group in the hydrocarbon molecular structure) except natural rubber and EPDM.

O: Outstanding   E: Excellent   G: Good   F: Fair   P: Poor
https://www.kyodoyushi.co.jp/english/knowledge/grease/about/

01/08/2022 Module 6: Properties of Petroleum Products 36

Oil based grease
Polyethylene glycol oil based grease

Optimum for applications in contact with rubber because of little adverse effect on rubber including natural rubber and
EPDM.

Phenyl ether oil based grease

Optimum for automotive electrical components for its excellent thermo-oxidative stability; Good radiation resistance.

Silicone oil based grease

Excellent thermo-oxidative stability and usable over a wide temperature range; Poor steel-on-steel lubricity.

Fluorinated oil based grease

Offers the best thermo-oxidative stability and high chemical resistance of all existing greases, but has the drawback of being
very expensive. Optimal for chemical plants, high-temperature drying ovens and copying machine heat rollers.

https://www.kyodoyushi.co.jp/english/knowledge/grease/about/

01/08/2022 Module 6: Properties of Petroleum Products 37

Penetration Test of Grease
Consistency is a measurement of basic ASTM (JIS) Worked
Hardness JIS penetration grade
Penetration
physical properties of grease indicating
No.000 445 - 475
grease hardness, which can be adjusted by
00 400 - 430
changing thickener content. Grease
0 355 - 385
consistency has been classified by Japanese
1 310 - 340
Industrial Standards (JIS) based on worked
2 265 - 295
penetration measurements.
3 220 - 250

4 175 - 205

5 130 - 160

6 85 - 115

https://www.kyodoyushi.co.jp/english/knowledge/grease/penetration/
01/08/2022 Module 6: Properties of Petroleum Products 38
Penetration Test of Grease
JIS K 2220 defines the measuring procedure of the consistency of a grease as shown below.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=97LckifYjIA

https://www.kyodoyushi.co.jp/english/knowledge/grease/penetration/

01/08/2022 Module 6: Properties of Petroleum Products 39

Drop point of grease
The dropping point of a grease is the temperature at which it passes from a semi-solid to a liquid state. The dropping point test determines
the cohesiveness of the oil and thickener of a grease. Dropping point tests are used for quality control to verify that the soap structure has
been formed correctly and will withstand high temperatures. The Dropping Point test is also known as ASTM Method D-2265. The dropping
point of a grease is the temperature at which it passes from a semi-solid to a liquid state. The dropping point test determines the
cohesiveness of the oil and thickener of a grease. Dropping point tests are used for quality control to verify that the soap structure has been
formed correctly and will withstand high temperatures. The technician monitors the entire test apparatus as it is slowly heated in order to
ensure that the heater block temperature and the sample temperature remain within 3°C of each other. As the temperature increases in the
test apparatus, a drop of oil will fall from the cup to the bottom of the test tube at the temperature at which the thickener can no longer
hold the oil. When this occurs, the technician will record both the sample and heater block temperatures on the thermometers to the
nearest degree. To calculate the dropping point of the grease, the recorded temperature of your sample is subtracted from the heater block
temperature. And that value is added to the sample temperature to determine the Dropping Point.

A Dropping Point is most often performed on any soap-thickened grease. Soap thickened greases consist of simple and complex soaps. Soap-
thickened greases are most often used in bearing applications in the automotive, industrial and aerospace industries.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5qX9LIpfKbU https://https://www.nyelubricants.com/lubricant-testing-101

01/08/2022 Module 6: Properties of Petroleum Products 40